PowerPoint® Lecture Slides prepared by Vince Austin, University of Kentucky
The Endocrine System
Part A 16
Human Anatomy & Physiology, Sixth Edition
Elaine N. Marieb
Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Endocrine System: Overview
Endocrine system – the body’s second great
controlling system which influences metabolic
activities of cells by means of hormones
Unlike neurons that send electrochemical signals
down an axon, endocrine glands secrete their
chemical into the surrounding tissue and blood
stream.
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Endocrine Overview
Endocrine glands – pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid,
adrenal, pineal, and thymus
The hypothalamus in the brain has both neural
functions and releases hormones. It is called a
neuroendocrine organ
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Endocrine System: Overview
Other tissues and organs that produce hormones –
adipose cells, pockets of cells in the walls of the
small intestine, stomach, kidneys, and heart
The pancreas and gonads produce both hormones
and exocrine products
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Major Endocrine Organs
Figure 16.1
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Autocrines and Paracrines
Autocrines – chemicals that exert their effects on the
same cells that secrete them
Paracrines – locally acting chemicals that affect cells
other than those that secrete them
These are not considered hormones since hormones
are long-distance chemical signals
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Hormones
Hormones – chemical substances secreted by cells
into the extracellular fluids
Regulate the metabolic function of other cells
Have lag times ranging from seconds to hours
Tend to have prolonged effects
Are classified as amino acid-based hormones,
steroids , or eicosanoids
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Types of Hormones
Amino acid based – most hormones belong to this
class, including: Amines, thyroxine, peptide, and
protein hormones
Steroids – gonadal and adrenocortical hormones
Eicosanoids – released by almost all cell membranes
for local contril, includes: leukotrienes (anti-
inflamatory) and prostaglandins (mutliple effects)
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Hormone Action
Hormones can not interact with just any cell, they
must fit a receptor site on a specific cell. These are
called Target Cells
Hormones alter target cell activity.
The precise response depends on the type of the
target cell
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Mechanism of Hormone Action
Hormones produce one or more of the following
cellular changes in target cells
Alter plasma membrane permeability
Stimulate protein synthesis
Activate or deactivate enzyme systems
Induce secretory activity
Stimulate mitosis
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Target Cell Activation
Target cell activation depends on three factors
Blood levels of the hormone
Relative number of receptors on the target cell
The affinity of those receptors for the hormone
Up-regulation – target cells form more receptors in
response to the hormone
Down-regulation – target cells lose receptors in
response to the hormone
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Hormone Concentrations in the Blood
Hormones circulate in the blood in two forms –
free or bound
Steroids and thyroid hormone are attached to
plasma proteins
All others are unbound.
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Hormone Concentrations in the Blood
Concentrations of circulating hormone reflect:
Rate of release
Speed of inactivation and removal from the body
Hormones are removed from the blood by:
Degrading enzymes
The kidneys
Liver enzyme systems
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Amino Acid – Based Hormones
Since amino acid based hormones are protiens they
cannot penetrate the plasma membrane.
They bind to a receptor on the cell membrane and a
second messenger is generated.
The best understood and studied second messenger
is cyclic AMP.
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Second Messenger activation
Step 1: The hormone binds to the receptor on the
cell membrane causing the G Protein inside the cell
to change shape.
Step 2: The G protein gets rid of GDP and receives
GTP. This is the “on” or “go” signal.
Step 3: The GTP activates the effector enzyme
adenylate cyclase and the GTP turns back into GDP.
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Second Messenger Activation
Step 4: adenylate cyclase activates generates another
chemical cAMP, which is the actual second
messenger.
Step 5: cAMP diffuses throughout the cell triggering
a cascade of reactions.
This is not the only second messenger activation,
there are others, but they happen in a similar
manner.
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Steroid Hormones
Steroid hormones and thyroid hormone diffuse easily into
their target cells
Once inside, they bind and activate a specific intracellular
receptor
The hormone-receptor complex travels to the nucleus and
binds a DNA-associated receptor protein
This interaction prompts DNA transcription to produce
mRNA
The mRNA is translated into proteins, which bring about a
cellular effect
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Steroid Hormones
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Interaction of Hormones at Target Cells
Three types of hormone interaction
Permissiveness – one hormone cannot exert its
effects without another hormone being present
Synergism – more than one hormone produces the
same effects on a target cell
Antagonism – one or more hormones opposes the
action of another hormone
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Control of Hormone Release
Blood levels of hormones:
Are controlled by negative feedback systems
Vary only within a narrow desirable range
Hormones are synthesized and released in response
to humoral, neural, and hormonal stimuli
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Endocrine System: Biochemistry, Secretion, and Transport of Hormones
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Humoral Stimuli
Humoral stimuli – secretion of hormones in direct
response to changing blood levels of ions and
nutrients
Example: concentration of calcium ions in the blood
Declining blood Ca2+ concentration stimulates the
parathyroid glands to secrete PTH (parathyroid
hormone)
PTH causes Ca2+ concentrations to rise and the
stimulus is removed
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Neural Stimuli
Neural stimuli – nerve
fibers stimulate hormone
release
Preganglionic
sympathetic nervous
system (SNS) fibers
stimulate the adrenal
medulla to secrete
catecholamines
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Hormonal Stimuli
Hormonal stimuli – release of hormones in response
to hormones produced by other endocrine organs
The hypothalamic hormones stimulate the anterior
pituitary
In turn, pituitary hormones stimulate targets to
secrete still more hormones
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Hormonal Stimuli
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Nervous System Modulation
The nervous system modifies the stimulation of
endocrine glands and their negative feedback
mechanisms
The nervous system can override normal endocrine
controls
For example, control of blood glucose levels
Normally the endocrine system maintains blood
glucose
Under stress, the body needs more glucose
The hypothalamus and the sympathetic nervous
system are activated to supply ample glucose
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Major Endocrine Organs: Pituitary
(Hypophysis)
Pituitary gland – two-lobed organ that secretes nine
major hormones
Neurohypophysis – posterior lobe (neural tissue) and
the infundibulum
Receives, stores, and releases hormones from the
hypothalamus
Adenohypophysis – anterior lobe, made up of
glandular tissue
Synthesizes and secretes a number of hormones
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Major Endocrine Organs: Pituitary
(Hypophysis)
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Pituitary-Hypothalamic Relationships:
Posterior Lobe
The posterior lobe is a downgrowth of hypothalamic
neural tissue
Has a neural connection with the hypothalamus
(hypothalamic-hypophyseal tract)
Nuclei of the hypothalamus synthesize oxytocin and
antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
These hormones are transported to the posterior
pituitary
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Pituitary-Hypothalamic Relationships:
Anterior Lobe
The anterior lobe of the pituitary is an outpocketing
of the oral mucosa
There is no direct neural contact with the
hypothalamus
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Pituitary-Hypothalamic Relationships:
Anterior Lobe
There is a vascular connection, the hypophyseal
portal system, consisting of:
The primary capillary plexus
The hypophyseal portal veins
The secondary capillary plexus
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Pituitary-Hypothalamic Relationships:
Anterior Lobe
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Adenophypophyseal Hormones
The six hormones of the adenohypophysis:
Are abbreviated as GH, TSH, ACTH, FSH, LH,
and PRL
Regulate the activity of other endocrine glands
In addition, pro-opiomelanocortin (POMC):
Has been isolated from the pituitary
Is enzymatically split into ACTH, opiates, and
MSH
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Activity of the Adenophypophysis
The hypothalamus sends a chemical stimulus to the
anterior pituitary
Releasing hormones stimulate the synthesis and
release of hormones
Inhibiting hormones shut off the synthesis and
release of hormones
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Activity of the Adenophypophysis
The tropic hormones that are released are:
Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)
Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)
Luteinizing hormone (LH)
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Growth Hormone (GH)
Produced by somatotropic cells of the anterior lobe
that:
Stimulate most cells, but target bone and skeletal
muscle
Promote protein synthesis and encourage the use of
fats for fuel
Most effects are mediated indirectly by
somatomedins
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Growth Hormone (GH)
Antagonistic hypothalamic hormones regulate GH
Growth hormone–releasing hormone (GHRH)
stimulates GH release
Growth hormone–inhibiting hormone (GHIH)
inhibits GH release
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Metabolic Action of Growth Hormone
GH stimulates liver, skeletal muscle, bone, and
cartilage to produce insulin-like growth factors
Direct action promotes lipolysis and inhibits glucose
uptake
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Metabolic Action of Growth Hormone
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Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (Thyrotropin)
Tropic hormone that stimulates the normal
development and secretory activity of the thyroid
gland
Triggered by hypothalamic peptide thyrotropin-
releasing hormone (TRH)
Rising blood levels of thyroid hormones act on the
pituitary and hypothalamus to block the release of
TSH
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Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (Corticotropin)
Stimulates the adrenal cortex to release
corticosteroids
Triggered by hypothalamic corticotropin-releasing
hormone (CRH) in a daily rhythm
Internal and external factors such as fever,
hypoglycemia, and stressors can trigger the release
of CRH
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Gonadotropins
Gonadotropins – follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)
and luteinizing hormone (LH)
Regulate the function of the ovaries and testes
FSH stimulates gamete (egg or sperm) production
Absent from the blood in prepubertal boys and girls
Triggered by the hypothalamic gonadotropin-
releasing hormone (GnRH) during and after
puberty
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Functions of Gonadotropins
In females
LH works with FSH to cause maturation of the
ovarian follicle
LH works alone to trigger ovulation (expulsion of
the egg from the follicle)
LH promotes synthesis and release of estrogens and
progesterone
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Functions of Gonadotropins
In males
LH stimulates interstitial cells of the testes to
produce testosterone
LH is also referred to as interstitial cell-stimulating
hormone (ICSH)
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Prolactin (PRL)
In females, stimulates milk production by the breasts
Triggered by the hypothalamic prolactin-releasing
hormone (PRH)
Inhibited by prolactin-inhibiting hormone (PIH)
Blood levels rise toward the end of pregnancy
Suckling stimulates PRH release and encourages
continued milk production
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The Posterior Pituitary and Hypothalamic
Hormones
Posterior pituitary – made of axons of hypothalamic
neurons, stores antidiuretic hormone (ADH) and
oxytocin
ADH and oxytocin are synthesized in the
hypothalamus
ADH influences water balance
Oxytocin stimulates smooth muscle contraction in
breasts and uterus
Both use PIP-calcium second-messenger mechanism
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