Chapter 2
Scientific Investigation
Slide 2-2
Scientific Investigation
Scientific research focuses on solving problems
and pursues a step‐by‐step logical, organized,
and rigorous method to identify the problems,
gather data, analyze them, and draw valid
conclusions from them.
Scientific investigation tends to be more objective
than subjective, and helps managers to highlight
the most critical factors at the workplace that
need specific attention so as to avoid, minimize,
or solve problems.
Slide 14-3
Hallmarks
Hallmarks of
of Scientific
Scientific Research:
Research:
Hallmarks or main distinguishing
characteristics of scientific research:
Purposiveness
Rigor
Testability
Replicability
Precision and Confidence
Objectivity
Generalizability
Parsimony
Slide 2-4
Purposiveness
Purposiveness
The manager has started the research with a
definite aim or purpose.
Commitment of employees to the organization, as
this will be beneficial in many ways. An increase
in employee commitment will translate into lower
turnover, less absenteeism, and probably
increased performance levels, all of which will
definitely benefit the organization. The research
thus has a purposive focus.
Slide 2-5
Rigor
Rigor
A good theoretical base and a sound
methodological design add rigor to a
purposive study. Rigor connotes
carefulness. In the case of our example,
let us say the manager of an organization
asks 10 to 12 of its employees to indicate
what would increase their level of
commitment to it.
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Testability
Testability
A scientific hypothesis must be testable.
Not all hypotheses can be tested. Non‐
testable hypotheses are often vague
statements, or they put forward something
that cannot be tested experimentally.
Slide 2-7
Replicability
Replicability
Replication demonstrates that our
hypotheses have not been supported
merely by chance, but are reflective of the
true state of affairs in the population
Slide 2-8
Precision
Precision and
and Confidence
Confidence
Precision refers to the closeness of the findings to “reality” based
on a sample. In other words, precision reflects the degree of
accuracy or exactitude of the results on the basis of the sample, to
what really exists in the universe.
Confidence refers to the probability that our estimations are
correct. That is, it is not merely enough to be precise, but it is also
important that we can confidently claim that 95% of the time our
results will be true and there is only a 5% chance of our being
wrong.
Slide 2-9
Objectivity
Objectivity
The conclusions drawn through the
interpretation of the results of data
analysis should be objective; that is, they
should be based on the facts of the
findings derived from actual data, and not
on our own subjective or emotional values.
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Generalizability
Generalizability
Generalizability refers to the scope of
applicability of the research findings in one
organizational setting to other settings.
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Parsimony
Parsimony
Parsimony can be introduced with a good
understanding of the problem and the important factors
that influence it. Such a good conceptual theoretical
model can be realized through unstructured and
structured interviews with the concerned people, and a
thorough literature review of the previous research work
in the particular problem area.
Slide 2-12
Hypothetico-Deductive Research
The Seven-Step Process in the
Hypothetico-Deductive Method
Identify a broad problem area
Define the problem statement
Develop hypotheses
Determine measures
Data collection
Data analysis
Interpretation of data
Slide 2-13
Deduction and Induction
Deductive reasoning: application of a general theory
to a specific case.
Hypothesis testing
Mostly used in causal and quantitative studies.
Inductive reasoning: a process where we observe
specific phenomena and on this basis arrive at
general conclusions.
Counting white swans
Mostly used in exploratory and qualitative studies
Both inductive and deductive processes are often
used in research.
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Alternative
Alternative Approaches
Approaches to
to What
What
Makes
Makes Good
Good Research
Research
Ontology is the philosophical field revolving
around (the study of) the nature of reality (all
that is or exists)
Epistemology is the philosophical field
revolving around (the study of) knowledge
and how to reach it.
Slide 2-15
Alternative Approaches to What
Makes Good Research
Positivism
Positivism adheres to the view that only “factual” knowledge gained
through observation (the senses), including measurement, is
trustworthy. For a positivist, the world operates by laws of cause and
effect. They use deductive reasoning to put forward theories that they
can test by means of a fixed, predetermined research design and
objective measures.
Constructionism
Constructionists hold the opposite view. Constructionism emphasizes
how people construct knowledge. Constructionists are particularly
interested in how people’s views of the world result from interactions
with others and the context in which they take place. The research
methods of constructionist researchers are often qualitative in nature.
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Alternative Approaches to What
Makes Good Research
Critical realism
An intermediary viewpoints. Critical realism is a combination of the
belief in an external reality (an objective truth) with the rejection of the
claim that this external reality can be objectively measured;
observations (especially observations on phenomena that we cannot
observe and measure directly, such as satisfaction, motivation, culture)
will always be subject to interpretation.
Pragmatism
They feel that research on both objective and subjective meanings can
produce useful knowledge, depending on the research questions of the
study. The focus of pragmatism is on practical, applied research where
different viewpoints on research and the subject under study are
helpful in solving a (business) problem. Pragmatists stress the
relationship between theory and practice. For a pragmatist, theory is
derived
Slide 14-17 from practice and then applied back to practice to achieve
intelligent practice.
Positivism
Scientific research is the way to get to the
truth
Rigor and Replicability, reliability, and
generalizability
Key approach: experiment
Slide 2-18
Constructionism
The world as we know it is fundamentally
mental
Aim to understand the rules people use to
make sense of the world
Research methods are often qualitative in
nature
Slide 2-19
Critical Realism
There is an external reality but we cannot
always objectively measure this external
reality
The critical realist is critical of our ability
to understand the world with certainty
Slide 2-20
Pragmatism
Do not take a particular position on what
makes good research
Research on both objective and
subjective phenomena can produce
useful knowledge
Relationship between theory and practice
Purpose of theory is to inform practice
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