GENERAL EMBRYOLOGY

Prof. Ammara Ghafoor

Describ Describe the cell cycle

Enlist different stages of Mitosis and

Compa
Introduction
Anatomy is the branch of biology that
studies the structure of living organisms.
It focuses on how the body is organized,
from large organs to tiny cells.
Understanding anatomy helps in medicine,
healthcare, and biological sciences.
Branches of Anotamy
1. Gross Anatomy – The study of large
body structures that can be seen without
a microscope, such as the heart, lungs,
and muscles.
2. Microscopic Anatomy – The study of
structures too small to be seen with the
naked eye, including cells (cytology) and
tissues (histology).
Branches of Anotamy
3. Developmental Anatomy – Focuses on how
the body changes from conception to
adulthood, including embryology (study of
embryos).
4. Comparative Anatomy – Examines
similarities and differences in the anatomy of
different species.
5. Pathological Anatomy – Studies changes in
body structures due to disease.
Cell
Somatic Cells
 Diploid # of Chromosomes (46)
 23 homologous pairs to form the diploid number of 46
 22 pairs of matching chromosomes are called the autosomes
 one pair of sex chromosomes XX or XY
 One chromosome of each pair is derived from the maternal
gamete, the oocyte, and one from the paternal gamete,
the sperm
Germ Cells
 Haploid # of Chromosomes (23)
Cell Division
Mitosis
Mitosis is the process whereby one cell divides, giving
rise to two daughter cells that are genetically identical
to the parent cell. 4646

Meiosis
Meiosis is the cell division that takes place in the germ
cells to generate male and female gametes, sperm and
egg cells.
4623
Cell Cycle
Cell Cycle
 DNA replication occurs during interphase.
 The cyclic alternation between mitosis and interphase,
known as the cell cycle, occurs in all tissues with cell
turnover.
 The cell cycle has four distinct phases: mitosis, and three
interphase periods
 G1 (the time gap between mitosis and DNA replication)
 S (the period of DNA synthesis)
 G2 (the gap between DNA duplication and the next
mitosis).
 G1 phase:
 active synthesis of RNA and proteins, including proteins that control the cell
cycle, and the cell volume, reduced to one-half by mitosis, grows to its previous
size.
 S phase:
 synthesis of DNA and histones and by the beginning of centrosome duplication.
 G2 phase:
 proteins required for mitosis accumulate.
 As postmitotic cells begin to specialize and differentiate, cell cycle activities may
be temporarily or permanently suspended and the cells are referred to as being
in the G0 phase.
 Some differentiated cells, such as those of the liver, renew cycling under certain
conditions; others, including most muscle and nerve cells, are terminally
differentiated.
 Mitosis
Mitosis is the process whereby one cell
divides, giving rise to two daughter cells that
are genetically identical to the parent cell.
Each daughter cell receives the complete
complement of 46 chromosomes.
The period between mitoses is called
interphase
Before a cell enters mitosis, each
chromosome longitudinally replicates its
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA).
During this replication phase, chromosomes
are extremely long, they are spread
diffusely through the nucleus, and they
cannot be recognized with the light
microscope.
With the onset of mitosis, the
The process of mitosis is subdivided into four phases

Prophase
Metaphase
Anaphase
Telophase
Prophase
Each chromosome now consists of two
parallel subunits, chromatids, that are
joined at a narrow region common to both
called the centromere.
Throughout prophase, the chromosomes
continue to condense, shorten, and thicken,
but only at prometaphase do the
chromatids become distinguishable.
Metaphase
the chromosomes line up in the equatorial
plane, and their doubled structure is
clearly visible.
Each is attached by microtubules extending
from the centromere to the centriole,
forming the mitotic spindle.
Anaphase
the centromere of each chromosome
divides, followed by migration of
chromatids to opposite poles of the spindle.
Telophase
chromosomes uncoil and lengthen, the
nuclear envelope reforms, and the
cytoplasm divides.
Each daughter cell receives half of all
doubled chromosome material and thus
maintains the same number of
chromosomes as the mother cell.
Meiosis
Meiosis is the cell division that takes place
in the germ cells to generate male and
female gametes, sperm and egg cells,
respectively.
Meiosis requires two cell divisions,
meiosis I and
meiosis II, to reduce the number of
chromosomes to the haploid number of 23.
As in mitosis, male and female germ cells
(spermatocytes and primary oocytes) at the
beginning of meiosis I replicate their DNA so
that each of the 46 chromosomes is
duplicated into sister chromatids.
In contrast to mitosis, however, homologous
chromosomes then align themselves in
pairs, a process called synapsis.
The pairing is exact and point for point
except for the XY combination.
 Homologous pairs then separate into two
daughter cells, thereby reducing the
chromosome number from diploid to
haploid.
Shortly thereafter, meiosis II separates
sister chromatids.
 Each gamete then contains 23
Result of meiotic divisions
Genetic variability is enhanced through
crossover, which redistributes genetic
material
random distribution of homologous
chromosomes to the daughter cells
Each germ cell contains a haploid number
of chromosomes, so that at fertilization the
diploid number of 46 is restored.
EMBRYOLOGIC TERMINOLOGY
Oocyte (L. ovum, egg).
The female germ or sex cells are produced
in the ovaries. When mature, the oocytes
are called secondary oocytes or mature
oocytes.
Sperm (Gr. sperma, seed)
The sperm, or spermatozoon, refers to the
male germ cell produced in the testes
(testicles).
 Numerous sperms (spermatozoa) are
expelled from the male urethra during
ejaculation.
Zygote
This cell results from the union of an oocyte
and a sperm during fertilization. A zygote
or embryo is the beginning of a new human
being.
Gestational Age
 It is difficult to determine exactly when fertilization
(conception) occurs because the process cannot be
observed in vivo (within the living body).
 Physicians calculate the age of the embryo or fetus
from the presumed first day of the last normal
menstrual period.
 This is the gestational age, which is approximately 2
weeks longer than the fertilization age because the
oocyte is not fertilized until approximately 2 weeks
after the preceding menstruation.
Cleavage
This is the series of mitotic cell divisions of
the zygote that result in the formation of
early embryonic cells, blastomeres. The
size of the cleaving zygote remains
unchanged because at each succeeding
cleavage division, the blastomeres become
smaller.
Morula (L. morus, mulberry)
This solid mass of 12 to approximately 32
blastomeres is formed by cleavage of a zygote.
The blastomeres change their shape and tightly align
themselves against each other to form a compact
ball of cells.
This phenomenon, compaction, is probably
mediated by cell surface adhesion glycoproteins.
 The morula stage occurs 3 to 4 days after
fertilization, just as the early embryo enters the
uterus.
Blastocyst (Gr. blastos, germ +
kystis, bladder)
After 2 to 3 days, the morula enters the
uterus from the uterine tube (fallopian
tube).
Soon a fluid-filled cavity, the blastocystic
cavity, develops inside it.
This change converts the morula into a
blastocyst.
Its centrally located cells, the inner cell
mass or embryoblast, is the embryonic part
Implantation
The process during which the blastocyst
attaches to the endometrium, the mucous
membrane or lining of uterus, and
subsequently embeds in it.
 The preimplantation period of embryonic
development is the time between fertilization
and the beginning of implantation, a period of
approximately 6 days.
Gastrula (Gr. gaster,
stomach)
During gastrulation (transformation of a
blastocyst into a gastrula), a three-layered
or trilaminar embryonic disc forms (third
week).
The three germ layers of the gastrula
(ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm)
subsequently differentiate into the tissues
and organs of the embryo.
Neurula (Gr. neuron, nerve)
The early embryo during the third and
fourth weeks when the neural tube is
developing from the neural plate. It is the
first appearance of the nervous system and
the next stage after the gastrula.
Embryo (Gr. embryon)
The developing human during its early stages
of development. The embryonic period extends
to the end of the eighth week (56 days), by
which time the beginnings of all major
structures are present.
The size of embryos is given as crown-rump
length, which is measured from the vertex of
the cranium (crown of head) to the rump
(buttocks).
Stages of Prenatal
Development
Early embryonic development is described
in stages because of the variable period it
takes for embryos to develop certain
morphologic characteristics.
Stage 1 begins at fertilization and
embryonic development ends at stage 23,
which occurs on day 56.
The fetal period begins on day 57 and ends
when the fetus is completely outside the
Conceptus (L. conceptio,
derivatives of zygote)
The embryo and its adnexa (L., appendages or
adjunct parts) or associated membranes (i.e., the
products of conception).
The conceptus includes all structures that develop
from the zygote, both embryonic and
extraembryonic.
Hence, it includes the embryo as well as the
embryonic part of the placenta and its associated
membranes: amnion, chorionic (gestational) sac,
and umbilical vesicle or yolk sac.
Primordium (L. primus, first +
ordior, to begin)
The beginning or first discernible indication
of an organ or structure. The terms anlage
and rudiment (basic form, undeveloped)
have similar meanings. The primordium of
the upper limb appears as a bud on day 26.
Fetus (L., unborn offspring)
After the embryonic period (8 weeks) and
until birth, the developing human is called
a fetus. During the fetal period (ninth week
to birth), differentiation and growth of the
tissues and organs formed during the
embryonic period occur. These
developmental changes are not dramatic.
Abortion (L. aboriri, to
miscarry)
 A premature stoppage of development and expulsion of a
conceptus from the uterus or expulsion of an embryo or fetus
before it is viable-capable of living outside the uterus. An abortus is
the products of an abortion (i.e., the embryo/fetus and its
membranes). There are different types of abortion:
 Threatened abortion
 A spontaneous abortion
 A habitual abortion
 An induced abortion
 A complete abortion
 A missed abortion
 A miscarriage
 Time Periods
 Trimester.
 Postnatal Period.
 Infancy. First year after birth.
 Newborn or neonate. 1 month or younger
 Childhood. 13 months until puberty
 Puberty. 12 and 15 years in girls and 13 and 16 years in
boys (secondary sexual characteristics )
 Adolescence. 11 to 19 years
 Adulthood (L. adultus, grown up), attainment of full growth
and maturity, is generally reached between the ages of 18
and 21 years. Ossification and growth are virtually completed
during early adulthood (21 to 25 years).