Data Transmission on Layer 1
Physical Layer
3.1
Data Transmission
On Physical Layer
Chapter 3: Data and Signals
Chapter 4: Digital Transmission
Chapter 5: Analog Transmission
Chapter 7:Transmission Media
3.2
Chapter 3
Data and Signals
3.3
3-1 ANALOG AND DIGITAL DATA
Data that we need to transmit on the network can be Analog or Digital.
Analog data refers to information that is continuously changing like output of
mic or camera etc.
Digital data refers to data that has discrete values like 1 and 0.
Topics discussed in this section:
Analog and Digital Data
Analog and Digital Signals
3.4 Periodic and Nonperiodic Signals
Convert Data into Signals
To transmit data on a physical medium like wire or
Fiber optic, Data must be transformed into
Electromagnetic signals:
Pulses of electricity
Pulses of light
3.5
Analog and Digital Signals
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3.6
TRANSMISSION OF ANALOG DATA
Analog data : Data that is continuous like:
Clock Time, Temperature, Humidity, Human voice, Video
To transmit this on the network, it must be converted into electrical signals. The Signals can then
be sent as:
1. Analog signal
2. Converted to Digital and then sent as Digital Signal
3.7
TRANSMISSION OF DIGITAL DATA
Digital data:
Digital Data has unique values like 1 or 0
or True and False
Data in Computer memory is 1s and 0s.
A Digital Clock has discrete values.
For transmission of Digital data, we can:
1. Convert digital data into digital signal and send on wire.
2. Convert digital data into light pulses and send that on fiber optic
3. Convert digital data into pulses of radio frequencies and transmit in the air or
send on land line.
-Our computer data transmitted on wi-fi.
3.8
HOW TO CONVERT DIGITAL DATA INTO DIGITAL SIGNALS
Digital data can be converted into digitals signals.
For example, to send 1s and 0s
1 can be sent as +5 Volt and 0 as 0 Volt
1 can be sent as +5 Volt and 0 as -5 Volt.
To increase the speed of transmission,
we can use two amplitude levels
say +3V, +1.5V, -1.5V and -3V
By using 4 levels, we can send 2 bits at one time.
+3V can represent 00
+1.5V can represent 01
3.9 -1.5V can represent 10
Two digital signals: one with two signal levels and the other with four
signal levels
Send 1-bit per level
Send 2-bit per level
If a signal can have 8 level, 3 bits can be sent at one time. No of bits sent= log 28 =3 bits
If a signal has L level, no of bits/level= log2L bits
3.10
Example 3.8
A digital signal has 16 levels. How many bits can be sent per level?
We calculate the number of bits from the formula
no of bits/level= log216 = 4 bits
Each signal level is represented by 4 bits.
3.11
Bit Rate and Bit Interval
Bit Rate : number of bits per second bps
Bit Interval = 1 / Bit Rate Measured in Seconds
If 1000 bits being sent per second, Bit Rate =1000 bps
3.12
A digital signal has a bit rate of 2000 bps. What is the duration of each bit (bit interval)
Solution
The bit interval is the inverse of the bit rate.
Bit Interval = 1/ 2000 sec = 0.0005 sec
= 0.0005 x 1000 = 0.5 msec
= 0.5 ms x1000 = 500sec
3.13
Example
Assume we need to download text documents at the rate of 100 pages per minute. What is the
required bit rate of the channel?
Solution
A page on average has 24 lines with 80 characters in each line.
For sending text, we use ASCII, one character is represented by 8 bits.
Total Characters of 100 pages = 24 x 80 x100
Total Bits = 24 x 80 x 100 x 8 = 1,536,000 bits
Required bit rate=1,536,000/60= 25,600 bps = 25.6 Kbps
3.14
Bandwidth for a Digital Signals
When Digital Signals is transmitted on a wire, no other signal can be sent at that time as it
would interfere with other digital signal. Thus, only one digital signal can be transmitted on a
wire or Fiber Optic. This is called Baseband transmission.
Base band transmission occupies the entire wire thus Infinite Bandwidth. i.e., starting from
zero to infinite frequency
3.15
Transmission of Digital Signals over Long
Distance
Digitals signals can be transmitted as Digital over a Short Distance (in LAN) Max
100 Meters.
Transmitting over distances like 1000 Meters the signals attenuates so much that
message becomes unreadable.
Techniques for sending digital signals over longer distance:
a. Can use repeaters or a switch
b. Convert into Analog signals and then transmit on wire, fiber optic or
wireless.
3.16
Analog Signals
3.17
Periodic Signals: Signal that repeat itself at regular intervals can be represented as a Sine
Wave
S(t)= A sin (2πft+Φ)
S(t) represents the amplitude of signal at time t
A: peak amplitude( Highest Value of Amplitude)
f: frequency
t: Time in Seconds
3.18
A Graph drawn of Sine Values from
0—360 degrees
3.19
Frequency
• Frequency is the rate of change with respect
to time or Number of Cycles Per Second
• Change in a short span of time means high
frequency.
• Change over a long span of time means low
frequency.
3.20
If a signal does not change at all, its frequency is zero.
If a signal changes from 0 to say 10 volts in zero seconds, like Digital
Signal its frequency= 1/T= 1/0 = Infinite
3.21
Frequency and Time Period
Frequency Unit Time Unit
Period
1 1 Hz 1 Sec 1 Sec
1000 1 Kilo Hertz KHz 10-3 Sec 1 Mili Sec
1000,000 1 Mega Hertz MHz 10-6 Sec 1 Micro Sec
1000,000,000 1 Giga Hertz GHz 10-9 Sec 1 Nano Sec
1000,000,000,000 1 Tera Hertz THz 10-12 Sec 1 Pico Sec
3.22
Two signals of same frequency, but different amplitudes
3.23
Frequency and Time Period
Frequency f: Number of Cycles / Second. Hertz or Hz
Period T: Time taken for one complete cycle
3.24
Signals with the same amplitude but different frequencies
Frequency 12 Hz
Frequency 6 Hz
3.25
Calculation of Time Period of Analog Signal
The amplitude of electricity 220 Volt we use at home is continuously changing. It repeats the
pattern exactly 50 times per second. Frequency is 50 Cycles /Sec 50 Hz
Time Period of this sine wave can be determined using Formula:
T = 1/f = 1/50 = .02 Sec = 20 msec
3.26
Phase of a Sine Wave
Phase is measured in degrees or radians
There are π Radians in 180 Degrees
π = 3.14159
180° = π Radians, 90° = π/2 Radians
Phase shift of 360 ° = shift of a complete period
Phase shift of 180° = Shift of one-half period
Phase shift of 90° = one quarter of period
(1/4) cycle.
3.27
Sine waves with phase shift of 0, 90 and 180 degrees
Phases starts at 0 with Zero amplitude. The amplitude
increasing
Starts at time Zero with a peak amplitude. The
amplitude is decreasing
starts at time Zero with a zero amplitude. The amplitude
is decreasing
3.28
Example 3.3
A sine wave has phase shift of 1/6 cycle with respect to time 0. What is its phase in degrees and
radians?
Solution
We know that 1 complete cycle is 360°. Therefore, 1/6 cycle is
Phase shift of 60 Degrees or 1.046 Radians
3.29
Sine Wave Equations
3.30
Digital Data Transmission as
Analog Signals
Now all data to be transmitted on our
networks is digital.
A sine wave of 100 kHz can be modulated to
send digital data.
For sending large data, we can send that on
two or more sine waves of different
frequencies.
Multiple Sine Waves can travel at one time on
wire or fiber optic. Signals carrying data on
multiple sine waves is called COMPOSITE
3.31 signal.
A Digital signal of Frequency f can be considered as composite
Signal. Combination of three frequencies, f, 3f and 5f
3.32
Bandwidth of a Signal
The bandwidth of a composite signal is
the difference between the highest and
the lowest frequencies contained in that
signal.
3.33
Transmission TRANSMISSION
impairments in computer networks
IMPAIRMENT
refer to the degradation or distortion of transmitted
signals over a communication channel.
There are three main types of transmission
impairments:
1. Attenuation
2. Distortion
3.34
ATTENUATION
Attenuation is the loss of signal strength in
networking cables or wireless connections. This
typically is measured in decibels (dB) or voltage.
It may cause signals to become distorted or
indiscernible. An example of this is Wi-Fi signal
3.35
strength getting noticeably weaker the further that
DISTORTION
Distortion occurs when the shape of the
transmitted signal is altered due to factors such
as attenuation, interference, or noise
Distortion can cause errors in data transmission
and affect the reliability of the network.
3.36
NOISE
Noise refer to any unwanted signals that
interfere with the transmission of data.
3.37
Propagation time
Time required for a bit to travel from the source to the destination at Propagation
speed
Propagation time = Distance
Propagation speed
Propagation speed depends on the medium
3.38
Propagation time
3.39
Transmission time
The time required for transmission of a message .
It depends on:
The size of the message
Bandwidth of the channel
Transmission time = Message size
Bandwidth (bps)
3.40
Example:
8
Light travels in free space at 3.0 x 10 m/s in free space.
8
In wires or fiber Optics, it is around 2.4 x 10 m/s
3.41
Solution
3.42
