HCMUT – FEEE – Electronic engineering department

Instructor: Trần Hoàng Linh

Chapter 2

Atoms and Electrons

Refs:
1. Solid State Electronic Devices, Ben G. Streetman
and Sanjay Banerjee, Sixth Edition

1
 Objectives
1. Understand the wave-particle duality of nature
in quantum mechanics
2. Study the Bohr model of atoms
3. Apply the Schrodinger equation to simple
problems
4. Understand the electronic structure of atoms
and the periodic table
5. Understand how semiconductor properties are
determined

2
 Introduction
• The behavior of solid state devices is directly related
to atomic theory, quantum mechanics, and electron
models.
• In this chapter we shall investigate some of the
important properties of electrons, with special
emphasis on two points:
(1) the electronic structure of atoms and
(2) the interaction of atoms and electrons with
excitation, such as the absorption and emission of light.
• First, we shall investigate some of the experimental
observations which led to the modern concept of the
atom, and then we shall give a brief introduction to
the theory of quantum mechanics.

3
 Outline
1. Introduction to Physical Models
2. Experimental Observations
3. The Bohr Model
4. Quantum Mechanics
5. Atomic Structure and the Periodic Table

4
 2.1 Introduction to Physical Models
• In the 1920s it became necessary to
develop a new theory to describe
phenomena on the atomic scale.
• Physicists discovered that Newtonian
mechanics did not apply when objects
were very small or moved very fast.
– If things are confined to very small dimensions
(nanometer-scale), then QUANTUM
mechanics is necessary.
– If things move very fast (close to the speed of
light), then RELATIVISTIC mechanics is
necessary.

5
Classical Mechanics and Quantum Mechanics
Mechanics: the study of the behavior of
physical bodies when subjected to forces or
displacements

Classical Mechanics: describing Quantum Mechanics: describing

the motion of macroscopic objects. behavior of systems at atomic
Macroscopic: measurable or length scales and smaller .
observable by naked “eyes” or by
optical microscopy

6
 Outline
1. Introduction to Physical Models
2. Experimental Observations
3. The Bohr Model
4. Quantum Mechanics
5. Atomic Structure and the Periodic Table

7
 2.2 Experimental Observations
• The experiments that led to the development of
quantum theory were concerned with the
interaction of light and matter.
• On the one hand, there were phenomena such as
interference or diffraction which clearly indicated
that light has a wave character as proposed by
Huygens, in contrast to the particle or corpuscular
view of light proposed by Newton.
• But on the other hand, many experiments at the
turn of the 20th century clearly showed that a
new theory of light was needed.

8
 Photoelectric Effect

Incident light with Emitted electron

Tmax
frequency ν kinetic energy = T

Metal Plate νo ν

The photoelectric effect ( year1887 by Hertz) Experiment results

• Inconsistency with classical light theory
According to the classical wave theory, maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectron
is only dependent on the incident intensity of the light, and independent on the light
frequency; however, experimental results show that the kinetic energy of the
photoelectron is dependent on the light frequency.

Concept of “energy quanta” 9

 The Photoelectric Effect (2)
One simple way of finding the maximum
energy of the ejected electrons is to place
another plate above the one shown in Fig.
2-1a and then create an electric field
between the two plates.
The potential necessary to retard all
electron flow between the plates gives the
energy Em

10
 Energy Quanta
• Photoelectric experiment results suggest that the energy in a
light wave is contained in discrete energy packets, which are
called energy quanta or a photon
• The wave behaviors like particles. The particle is photon

Planck’s constant: h = 6.625×10-34 J-s

Photon energy = hn (Greek lower case “nu”, Could also use “f”
for frequency)
Work function of the metal material = hno
Maximum kinetic energy of a photoelectron: Tmax= h(n-no)

11
 Planck's Quantum Theory (1900)
Atoms and molecules can emit or absorb energy
only in discrete quantities
• Quantum (fixed amount): the smallest
quantity of energy that can be emitted (or
absorbed) in the form of electromagnetic
radiation.
E = hν E = hc

• Planck’s constant: h = 6.626 x 10-34 Js

• Energy is emitted in whole number multiples

of h.
• Energy changes can occur only in discrete
quantities. Variation of energy is
discontinuous.
13
 Photons
• This experiment demonstrates clearly that Planck’s
hypothesis was correct—light energy is contained in
discrete units rather than in a continuous distribution of
energies.
• Other experiments also indicate that, in addition to the
wave nature of light, the quantized units of light energy can
be considered as localized packets of energy, called
photons. We get the Planck relationship
hc 1240
E h  E[eV ] 
 [nm]
• Some experiments emphasize the wave nature of light,
while other experiments reveal the discrete nature of
photons. This wave–particle duality is fundamental to
quantum processes and does not imply an ambiguity in the
theory.
14
 Electron’s Wave Behavior
Nickel sample

Electron beam θ =0

Scattered θ =45º
beam
θ =90º
Detector

Davisson-Germer experiment (1927)

Electron as a particle has wave-like behavior

15
 De Broglie wavelength
• Based on the wave–particle duality of light, Louis de
Broglie proposed that particles of matter (such as
electrons) similarly could manifest a wave character in
certain experiments.
• This observation was confirmed by the diffraction of
electrons by the periodic array of atoms in a crystal
observed by Davisson and Germer. De Broglie
proposed that a particle of momentum p= mv (m =
mass and v = speed) has a wavelength given by
 = h/p = h/mv
l The Planck and de Broglie relationships are
fundamental in quantum physics and are valid for all
situations and objects, including photons and
electrons. They connect the wave description of
phenomena (frequency and wavelength) to a particle 16
17
 Wave-Particle Duality

Particle-like wave behavior Wave-like particle behavior

(example, photoelectric effect) (example, Davisson-Germer experiment)

Wave-particle duality

Mathematical descriptions:
h
The momentum of a photon is: p

h
The wavelength of a particle is: 
p
λ is called the de Broglie wavelength
18
 2.2.2 Atomic Spectra
• Early in the 19th century, Fraunhofer saw dark bands
on the solar spectrum.
• In 1885, Balmer observed hydrogen spectrum and
saw colored lines :
– Found empirical formula for discrete wavelengths of lines.
– Formula generalized by Rydberg for all one-electron atoms.

19
 Atomic Spectra: Modern Physics Lab

High Voltage
Supply
Neon Tube (to “excite” atoms)

Diffraction
Eyepiece
Grating
(to observe lines)
(to separate light)

20
Continuous, emission line, and absorption line
spectra

21
Continuous Spectrum of Visible Light
Light of all colors is observed

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Comp 22

any. All rights reserved. Section 9.3
 Line Emission Spectrum for Hydrogen
• When light from a gas-discharge tube is
analyzed only spectral lines of certain
frequencies are found

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin 23

Company. All rights reserved. Section 9.3
 Line Absorption Spectrum for Hydrogen
• Results in dark lines (same as the bright lines
of the line emission spectrum) of missing
colors.

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin 24

Company. All rights reserved. Section 9.3
 Continuous and Line Spectra
• Emission Spectra:
– Continuous: ROY G BIV. (R = Red, I = Indigo
Blue)
– Line Spectra: emitted by excited atoms and
passed through a prism

• Line Spectra:
– Different atoms emit different combination of
line spectra
– Monochromatic: single wavelength
– Used to identify the elements

25
 Some important line in the emission spectrum of hydrogen :

 Photon energy hv is then related to wavelength by :

hc 1240
E h  E[eV ] 
 [nm]

26
 The various series in the spectrum were observed
to follow certain empirical forms :

Where
c is the speed of light, and
R (or RH) is a constant called the Rydberg
constant :
R = 109,678 cm–1  1.097 x 107 m–1 27
 Each energy can be obtained by taking sums and
differences of other photon energies in the spectrum :

Figure 2-3. Relationships among photon energies in the hydrogen spectrum.

For example : E = 41E -21E

42

In the Balmer In the Lyman series

series 28
 Outline
1. Introduction to Physical Models
2. Experimental Observations
3. The Bohr Model
4. Quantum Mechanics
5. Atomic Structure and the Periodic Table

29
 2.3 The Bohr Model
• Classical model of the electron “orbiting” nucleus is
unstable. Why unstable?
– Electron experiences centripetal acceleration.
– Accelerated electron emits radiation.
– Radiation leads to energy loss.
– Electron eventually “crashes” into nucleus.
• In 1913, Bohr proposed quantized model of the H
atom to predict the observed spectrum.

30
 The Bohr Model
To develop the model, Bohr made several postulates :
1- Electrons exist in certain stable, circular orbits about the
nucleus. This assumption implies that the orbiting electron
does not give off radiation as classical electromagnetic
theory would normally require of a charge experiencing
angular acceleration; otherwise, the electron would not be
stable in the orbit but would spiral into the nucleus as it
lost energy by radiation.
2- The electron may shift to an orbit of higher or lower
energy, thereby gaining or losing energy equal to the
difference in the energy levels :

31
 The Bohr Model
3- The angular momentum P of the electron in an orbit is
always an integral multiple of Planck's constant divided
by 2π (h / 2π is often abbreviated ħ for convenience) :

 If we visualize the electron in a stable orbit of radius r about the

proton of the hydrogen atom, we can equate the electrostatic
force between the charges to the centripetal force:

where K = 40 in MKS units, m is the

mass of the electron, and v is its
velocity 32
(detailed derivation
see pp.38-39)

33
Orbital Radii and Energies of Hydrogen atom
• rn=0.0529n2 (nm)
• En=-13.6/n2 (eV)
• Energy difference between the levels DE
=13.6(1/nf2-1/ni2)

Initial State, ni
DE=10.2 eV

Final state, nf
For example, between n=1 and n=2 (as drawn in the picture)
DE=13.6(1/nf2-1/ni2)=13.6(1/12-1/22)=10.2 eV 34
Consider a single hydrogen atom:

an electron of charge = -e free to move around

in the electric field of a fixed proton of charge = +e
(proton is ~2000 times heavier than electron, so we Hydrogen
consider it fixed). Atom

The electron has a potential energy due to the attraction to

proton of:
where r is the electron-proton separation

The electron has a kinetic energy

of

The total energy is then

35
 The minimum energy state, quantum mechanically, can be
estimated by calculating the value of a=ao for which E(a) is
minimized:
E [eV]
AS A FUNCTION OF a
THE TOTAL ENERY
LOOKS LIKE THIS a [Å]
0.5

-13.6

36
 Interpretation of Line Spectra
• Atoms which have gained or absorbed extra energy from
some excitation energy source (flame, electric discharge
etc.) release that energy in the form of light

• The light atoms give off contain very specific wavelengths

called a line spectrum

• light given off = emission spectrum

• Each element has its own line spectrum which can be

used to identify it.

• Ground state: the lowest energy state of the atom.

• Excited state of an electron: it is in a higher energy state
than the ground state. 37
 Hydrogen spectrum
• The line spectrum at the bottom of the slide is not the entire
spectrum of hydrogen; it’s just the visible-light portion, involving
transitions to the n = 2 energy state. Here, n is the principle
quantum number.
• Hydrogen also has series of spectral lines in the infrared
En K n and
U n the
ultraviolet. 2
1 e
 12 mvn2 
4 0 rn
1 me 2
 2 2 2
 0 8n h
hcR

n2
me 4
R  2 3 (Rydberg constant)
8 0 h c
1  1 1 
R  2  2 
  nL nU 

38
 Bohr’s Correspondence Principle

• Bohr’s Correspondence Principle states

that quantum mechanics is in agreement
with classical physics when the energy
differences between quantized levels are
very small.
– Similar to having Newtonian Mechanics be a
special case of relativistic mechanics when v
<< c .

39
 Successes of the Bohr Theory
• Explained several features of the hydrogen spectrum
– Accounts for Balmer and other series
– Predicts a value for RH that agrees with the experimental
value
– Gives an expression for the radius of the atom
– Predicts energy levels of hydrogen
– Gives a model of what the atom looks like and how it
behaves
• Can be extended to “hydrogen-like” atoms
– Those with one electron
– Ze2 needs to be substituted for e2 in the Bohr equations
• Z is the atomic number of the element (=number of protons)

40
 Outline
1. Introduction to Physical Models
2. Experimental Observations
3. The Bohr Model
4. Quantum Mechanics
5. Atomic Structure and the Periodic Table

41
 2.4 Quantum Mechanics
 1924: de Broglie suggests particles are waves
 Mid-1925: Werner Heisenberg introduces Matrix Mechanics
 Semi-philosophical, it only considers observable quantities
 It used matrices, which were not that familiar at the time
 It refused to discuss what happens between measurements
 In 1927 he derives uncertainty principles

 Late 1925: Erwin Schrödinger proposes wave mechanics

 Used waves, more familiar to scientists at the time
 Initially, Heisenberg’s and Schrödinger’s formulations were
competing
 Eventually, Schrödinger showed they were equivalent; different
descriptions which produced the same predictions
Note: Both formulations are used today, but Schrödinger is
easier to understand 42
 Wave-Particle Duality of Light
• Einstein (1924) : “There are therefore now two theories
of light, both indispensable, and … without any logical
connection.”
– evidence for wave-nature of light:
 diffraction
 interference
– evidence for particle-nature of light:
 Photoelectric effect
 Compton effect
• Light exhibits diffraction and interference phenomena that
are only explicable in terms of wave properties
• Light is always detected as packets (photons); we never
observe half a photon
• Number of photons proportional to energy density (i.e. to
square of electromagnetic field strength)

43
44
Pioneers of Quantum Mechanics

Schrodinger Fermi Heisenberg

45
 Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle

• How does one find the electron “waves” in an

atom – strike it with a photon!
• However, once the photon strikes the electron,
its energy is changed, and therefore its path is
changed.
• You can never know both the velocity (speed
and direction) and position of an electron
simultaneously.
• In fact, the more you know about position, the
less is known about velocity (and vice versa).
 Schrödinger Equation

• Solutions to the equation, called

wavefunctions (Y), can only be specific
values.
• Treats quantization as a natural
consequence, not an assumption
• Electrons (in all probability) exist in 3-D
regions around the nucleus called
orbitals
 The Uncertainty Principle
The Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle (year 1927):
• It is impossible to simultaneously describe with absolute accuracy the
position and momentum of a particle

p x 
• It is impossible to simultaneously describe with absolute accuracy the
energy of a particle and the instant of time the particle has this energy

E t 
The Heisenberg uncertainty principle applies to electrons and states
that we can not determine the exact position of an electron. Instead, we
could determine the probability of finding an electron at a particular
position.

48
 Probability and the Uncertainty Principle (3)
 One implication of the uncertainty principle is that we
cannot properly speak of the position of an electron ,
for example, but must look for the probability of
finding an electron at a certain position. Thus one of
the important results of quantum mechanics is that a
probability density function can be obtained for a
particle in a certain environment, and this function can
be used to find the expectation value of important
quantities such as position, momentum, and energy.
 Given a probability density function P(x) for a one-
dimensional problem, the probability of finding the
particle in a range from x to x + dx is P(x) dx. Since
the particle will be somewhere, this definition implies
that :
(2–20)

Equation (2–20) is implied by stating that the

function P(x) is normalized (i.e., the integral 50
 Probability and the Uncertainty Principle (4)
 To find the average value of a function of x, we need
only multiply the value of that function in each
increment dx by the probability of finding the
particle in that dx and sum over all x. Thus the
average value of f(x) is :

 If the probability density function is not normalized,

this equation should be written :

51
 Quantum Theory for Semiconductors

How to determine the behavior of electrons and

(holes) in the semiconductor?

• Mathematical description of motion of electrons in quantum

mechanics ─ Schrödinger’s Wave Equation

• Solution of Schrödinger’s Wave Equation energy band

structure and probability of finding a electron at a particular
position

52
 Schrӧdinger’s Wave Equation
Text Equation 2.6 which we will now derive

One dimensional Schrӧdinger’s Wave Equation:

  2  2  ( x, t )  ( x, t )
 V ( x )  ( x, t )  j
2m x 2
t
 ( x, t ) : Wave function
2
 ( x, t ) dx , the probability to find a particle in (x, x+dx) at time t
2
 ( x, t ) , the probability density at location x and time t
V (x) : Potential function

m: Mass of the particle

53
 2.4.2 The Schrödinger Wave Equation
• De Broglie had said that electron formed standing
waves in the Hydrogen atom
• In 1926 Schrodinger wrote an equation that
described both the particle and wave nature of the e-
Wave function ( ) describes:
1 . energy of e- with a given 
2 . probability of finding e- in a volume of space
• Schrodinger’s equation can only be solved exactly
for the hydrogen atom. Must approximate its solution
for multi-electron systems.

54
 The Dual Nature of the Electron:
Matter Waves
Louis de Broglie
(1923)
• If light (wave) behaves
as particles (photons),
then particles should
behave as waves.
• Postulated matter
waves
• Wavelength related to
momentum
• Matter waves in atoms
are standing waves
• The length of the
wave must fit the
orbital of the 55
55
 The de Broglie Wavelength

l = h /mu

The de Broglie Wavelengths of Several Objects:

Substance Mass (g) Speed (m/s) l (m)

slow electron 9x10-28 1.0 7x10-4

fast electron 9x10-28 5.9x106 1x10-10

alpha particle 6.6x10-24 1.5x107 7x10-15

one-gram mass 1.0 0.01 7x10-29

baseball 142 25.0 2x10-34

Earth 6.0x1027 3.0x104 4x10-63

56
 Wave Mechanical Model of the Atom
• Energy can be treated as particles (quanta): Planck
• Light could be treated as particles (photons): Einstein
• Electrons (and all particles) can be treated as waves:
de Broglie
• Wave mechanics: the treatment of atomic structure
through the wavelike properties of the electron:
Schrödinger and wave equation
• Wave function: an acceptable solution to
Schrödinger’s wave equation is called. It can only be
solved for simple systems, but approximated for
others. Describes the behavior of the wave in
space.
• A wave function, Ψ (psi) represents an energy state of
the atom.
Electrons are like 3-dimensional waves.
• Wave mathematics is used to calculate probability
densities of finding the electron in a particular region 57
 The Schrödinger wave Equation

E = Aexp(jkx – jt)

58
The Schrödinger wave Equation

(derivation
pp.43-44)

59
 General Solution of the Schrödinger Wave
Equation
 The general form of the solution of the
Schrödinger wave equation is given by:

which also describes a wave moving in the x direction.

In general the amplitude may also be complex. This is
called the wave function of the particle.

 The wave function is also not restricted to being

real. Notice that the sine term has an imaginary
number. Only the physically measurable quantities
must be real. These include the probability,
momentum and energy.

60
 Normalization and Probability
 The probability P(x) dx of a particle being between x
and X + dx was given in the equation

here denotes the complex conjugate of

 The probability of the particle being between x1 and x2 is

given by

 The wave function must also be normalized so that the

probability of the particle being somewhere on the x
axis is 1.

61
Problem
A wave function  is A(eix + e-ix) in the region -<x<  and zero elsewhere. Normalize the wave function
and find the probability that the particle is (a) between x=0 and x=/4 and (b) between x=0 and x=/8.

(a)
1. Using the Euler relations between exponential and trig functions, we find
  A eix  e  ix  2 A cos  x  .
  1
    dx 4 A   cos  x dx 4 A  1 . Thus A 
* 2 2 2
Normalization: .
2 
The probability of being in the interval [0,  / 8] is
 /8
 /8 1  /8 1x 1 
P   * dx   cos 2  x dx    sin(2 x) 
0  0 2 4 0
1 1
  0.119 .
16 4 2

(b) The probability of being in the interval [0,  / 4] is

(a)
 /4
 /4 1  /4 1x 1 
P   * dx   cos 2  x dx    sin(2 x) 
0  0 2 4 0
1 1
  0.205 .
8 4
62
 Properties of Valid Wave Functions
Boundary conditions
1) In order to avoid infinite probabilities, the wave function must
be finite everywhere.
2) In order to avoid multiple values of the probability, the wave
function must be single valued.
3) For finite potentials, the wave function and its derivative must
be continuous. This is required because the second-order
derivative term in the wave equation must be single valued.
(There are exceptions to this rule when V is infinite.)
4) In order to normalize the wave functions, they must approach
zero as x approaches infinity.

• Solutions that do not satisfy these properties do not

generally correspond to physically realizable
circumstances.

63
 Solutions & Meaning of Schrödinger Equation

• Regions in space of high probability for finding

the electron - these are called orbitals
– ORBITAL: a particular, unique wave
equation for a given electron defined by
three integer terms (quantum numbers).
– The square of the function, Ψ2, is the
90% probability of finding an electron in a
particular volume of space in an atom.
– three-dimensional
– Each electron also has a fourth quantum
number to represent the direction of spin
(derived separately)
75
The Meaning of the Wave Function in
Quantum Mechanics

86
The Meaning of the Wave Function in
Quantum Mechanics

87
 Outline
1. Introduction to Physical Models
2. Experimental Observations
3. The Bohr Model
4. Quantum Mechanics
5. Atomic Structure and the Periodic Table

88
2.5 Atomic Structure and the Periodic
Table
• The Schrödinger equation describes accurately the
interactions of particles with potential fields, such as
electrons within atoms.
• However, the problem of solving the Schrödinger
equation directly for complicated atoms is extremely
difficult.
– In fact, only the hydrogen atom is generally solved directly;
atoms of atomic number greater than one are usually
handled by techniques involving approximations.
• The hydrogen atom solution is also important in
identifying the basic selection rules for describing
allowed electron energy levels.
• Without actually working through the mathematics for
the hydrogen atom, in this section we shall investigate
the energy level schemes dictated by the wave equation.
89
The Hydrogen Atom 2.5.1

90
Function Quantum Number Possible values Names of Quantum numbers

Principal quantum number

Orbital quantum number
Magnetic quantum number
Electron Spin quantum number

91
 Quantum Numbers for the H-atom
Principal quantum number n =1, 2, 3 …
Z 2 E0
Energy En  where E0=13.6eV
n2
Orbital quantum number l =0, 1, 2, 3 …, n-1

Orbital angular momentum L  l l  1

Magnetic quantum number m = -l, -l+1, …, l-1, l

Angular momentum in Z-direction Lz m

• Angular momentum is quantized in magnitude and direction
• Z can be any direction in free space, but will be parallel to the magnetic field.
• Bound state energies are negative.
• Energy depending only on n is a result of spherical symmetry.

92
Quantum Numbers for the H-atom (2)

93
 Meaning of Quantum Numbers
Principle Quantum Number

Principal quantum number n = 1, 2, 3 …

Z 2 E0
Determines energy E n  where E0=13.6eV
n2

S P D F G
l=0 1 2 3 4
n=5 Degenerate states
n=4
n=3
hf E3  E2
n=2

hf E2  E1

n=1

94
 Meaning of Quantum Numbers
Orbital Quantum Number

Orbital quantum number l = 0, 1, 2, 3 …, n-1

Determines magnitude of orbital angular momentum L  l l  1

95
 Meaning of Quantum Numbers
Magnetic Quantum Number m (or ml)

Magnetic quantum number m = -l, -l+1, …, l-1, l

Determines angular momentum in Z-direction Lz m

or equivalently the direction of L

96
 Meaning of Quantum Numbers
Electron Spin Quantum Number, s (or m s)
• Electron has an intrinsic angular momentum, or spin (1928,
Fermi).
• In a magnetic field, the rotation axis has only two possible
orientations: clockwise and counterclockwise. Can have 2 values
only.
• either +1/2 or -1/2

97
and

and

98
99
Quantum Numbers and Electron Configuration
• Schrödinger’s equation gives a set of state
functions that depend on three quantum numbers
– n,
– l,
– ml.
· n,l,ml2 maps out the probability of locating the
electron. We refer to these functions as orbitals
(electron density).

1s orbital y12,0,0 (x, y, z)

ml
n l 100
 A diagram of principal energy levels 1 and 2
showing the shapes of orbitals that compose the
sublevels.

101
 5.1

Atomic Orbitals
• An atomic orbital is often thought of as a region
of space in which there is a high probability of
finding an electron.
• Different atomic orbitals are denoted by letters.
The s orbitals are spherical, and p orbitals are
dumbbell-shaped.

102
 5.1

Atomic Orbitals
• Four of the five d orbitals have the same shape but
different orientations in space.

103
 Atomic Orbitals
F orbitals are weird.

104
105
 2.5.2 The Periodic Table
• The quantum numbers discussed in Section 2.5.1
arise from the solutions to the hydrogen atom
problem. Thus the energies obtainable from the
wave functions are unique to the hydrogen atom
and cannot be extended to more complicated
atoms without appropriate alterations.
• However, the quantum number selection rules are
valid for more complicated structures, and we can
use these rules to gain an understanding of the
arrangement of atoms in the periodic table of
chemical elements.
• Without these selection rules, it is difficult to
understand why only two electrons fit into the first
Bohr orbit of an atom, whereas eight electrons are
allowed in the second orbit. 106
 Pauli exclusion principle
• an important principle of quantum theory
• This rule states that no two electrons in an interacting
system can have the same set of quantum numbers n, l,
m, s.
– In other words, only two electrons can have the same
three quantum numbers n, l, m, and those two must
have opposite spin (s).
• One implication of this principle is that by listing the
various combinations of quantum numbers, we can
determine into which shell each electron of a complicated
atom fits, and how many electrons are allowed per shell.
• The quantum states summarized in Table 2– 1 can be
used to indicate the electronic configurations for atoms in
the lowest energy state.
107
Atomic Structure and Atomic Number

108
Atomic Structure and Atomic Number (2)

109
Atomic Structure and Atomic Number (3/3)

110
Atomic Mass and Mole

111
 Shorthand notation for electronic structures
• There is a simple shorthand notation for electronic
structures which is commonly used instead of such a
[Link] only new convention to remember in this
notation is the naming of the l values:

• This convention was created by early spectroscopists who

referred to the first four spectral groups as sharp, principal,
diffuse, and fundamental. Alphabetical order is used
beyond f. With this convention for l, we can write an
electron state as follows:

• For example, the total electronic configuration for Si (Z =

14) in the ground state is 112
113
Table 2-2 Electronic configurations for atoms in the ground state (cont’d).

114
Element Shorthand notation Element Shorthand notation

115
116
Figure 2—8
Electronic structure and energy levels in a Si atom: (a) The orbital model of a Si atom
showing the 10 core electrons (n = 1 and 2), and the 4 valence electrons (n = 3);
117
Figure 2—8
Electronic structure and energy levels in a Si atom: (b) energy levels in the coulombic
potential of the nucleus are also shown schematically. 118
 Periodic Table Basics

• Period
– Row on the periodic table
– Tells energy level
• Principal Quantum Number

• Family or Group
– Column on the periodic table
– For columns 1-2and 13-18,the number in the
one’s place represents number of valence
electrons

119
 Number columns and indicate # of valence
electrons

1 18
1 2 13 17
2
3 3 12
4
5
6
7

120
 Noble Gas
Group IV

Group VI
Group III
Periodic Table

Halogen
Group V
l = 0 (s)
n
l = 1 (p)
1
2 l = 2 (d)
3
4
5

6
7
l = 3 (f)

121