RESPIRATORY

SYSTEM
 The respiratory system is made up of a gas
exchanging organ (lungs) and a pump that
ventilates the lungs. The pump consists of the
chest wall,the res muscles which increase and
decrease the size of the thoracic cavity, and the
area of brain that control the muscles and the
tracts and nerves that connect the brain to the
muscles.
 RESPIRATION—
It is the process by which oxygen is taken
up and carbon dioxide is given out.
Respiration includes two process—
External respiration- The absorption of oxygen
and removal of carbon dioxide from the body as a
whole.
Internal respiration- The utilization of oxygen
and production of co2 by cells and the gaseous
exchange between the cells and their fluid
medium.
 PHASES OF RESPIRATION—
Inspiration– During which the air enters the
lungs from atmosphere.2 sec is required for
normal quiet inspiration.

Expiration-- During which the air leaves the

lungs. 2-3 sec is required for normal expiration.
During normal breathing, inspiration is an
active process and expiration is a passive
process.
Normal res rate in diff age—

New born- 30-60/min.

Early childhood - 20-40/min.
Late childhood-- 15-25/min.
Adult -- 12-16/min.
MUSCLE OF INSPIRATION---

In quiet inspiration---
1)The diaphragm—
2) External intercostal muscle.
In forceful inspiration—
1) Sternocleidomastoid.
2) Serratus anterior.
3)Scaleni.
MUSCLE OF EXPIRATION—

In quiet expiration-- Does not involve any

muscle. It occurs due to-
1) Elastic recoil tendency of the lungs
and chest wall.
2) Elastic forces exerted by the surface
tension of the fluid lines inside the walls of the
alveoli and lungs air spaces.
In forceful expiration—
1) Internal intercostal.
2) Rectus abdominis
 INTRAPLEURAL PRESSURE—
It is the pressure existing in pleural cavity
that is in between the two layers of pleura.
Intrapleural pressure is always negative bec of
continuous suction of pleural fluid into the
lymphatic vessels.
The normal values are—
At the beginning of normal inspiration- -2.5
mmof Hg or -5 cm of H2O.
 At the end of normal inspiration-- -6 mm of Hg or
-7.5 cm of H2O.
At the end of forced inspiration- -30 mm of Hg
or -30 cm of H2O.
Significance-
1. Prevent lung collapse.
 INTRA ALVEOLAR PRESSURE-
It is the pressure within the alveoli of lungs.
Value-
Normally intra-alveolar pressure is equal to
atmospheric pressure which is 760 mm of Hg.
During normal inspiration- -1 mm of Hg
(760-1=759 mm of Hg).
During normal expiration-- +1 mm of Hg.
(760+1=761 mm of Hg)
Significance—
1. Flow of air in and out of the alveoli.
2. Helps in exchanged of gases.
 Transpulmonary pressure—
It is the pressure difference between
intraalveolar pressure and intrapleural pressure.
 PULMONARY VENTILATION—
Pulmonary ventilation means exchange of
air between atmosphere and lung alveoli in each
minute.
Calculation of P.V—
P.V = Respiratory rate tidal volume.
= 12/min 500ml.
= 6000 ml / min.
= 6.0 liter/min.
 ALVEOLAR VENTILATION--
A.V means the total volume of new air enters
into the alveoli and other gas exchange areas of
lungs.
Calculation of A.V=
A.V = Res rate (tidal volume – dead space
volume).
= 12/min (500-150) ml.
=12 350 ml/min
=4200ml/min
=4.2 litre/min.
 Pulmonary volumes and
Pulmonary volumes-
capacities
Tidal volume--
It is the volume of air inspired or expired with each normal
breath .
It is about 500 ml.
Inspiratory reserve volume :
It is the extra volume of air that can be inspired over and
beyond the
normal tidal volume It is about 3000 ml .
Expiratory reserve volume :-
It is the amount of air that can be expired by forceful
expiration after
the end of a normal tidal expiration .It is about 1100 ml.
 Residual volume-
It is the volume of air remaining in the
lungs after the most forceful expiration. It is
about 1200 ml.

Importance---
1) It provides a continuous amount of air in
the alveoli so that it prevents sudden fall and
sudden rise of alveolar O2 and CO2
concentration.
2) It prevents the collapse of the alveoli of
lungs.
 PULMONARY CAPACITIES-
1. Inspiratory capacity- Tidal volume + ins
reserve volume =500+3000=3500
2. Functional residual capacity– exp reserve
volume+ Residual vol= 1100+1200=2300 ml.
3. Vital capacity– Exp reseve vol+ Ins reserve
vol + Tidal vol = 3000+1100+500=4600ml.
4. Total lung capacity = Vital
capacity+residual vol= 4600+1200= 5800ml.
 Vital capacity---
It is the volume of air that a person can
expire forcefully after a forceful inspiration.

Importance—
1. It indicates the efficiency in the act of
ventilation.
2. It gives an idea about the strength of
respiratory muscle.
3. It is an important lung function test.
 TRANSPORT OF O2---
By the following ways O2 is transported from
lungs to cells—

1) Transport of O2 from alveolar air to pulmonary

capillaries—

PO2 in alveolus = 104 mmHg.

PO2 in pulmonary capillaries at arterial end= 40
mmHg.
 The pressure difference of O2 between alveolar
air and pulmonary blood is-
(104-40) mmHg= 64 mmHg’
The 64 pressure difference causes diffusion of O2
from alveolus to pulmonary blood.
2) Transport of O2 in the blood—
In the form of O2-Hb-- About 97% of O2 is
carried in the form of oxy-hb. O2 combines with
hb by the process of oxygenation.

As a dissolved state-- Remaining 3% of O2 is

transported as dissolved state in the water of the
plasma and cells.
 3) Diffusion of O2 from blood to the tissue space
—
PO2 in arterial end of blood =95 mmHg.
PO2 in the interstitial space =40 mmHg.
Pressure difference =(95-40)mmHg =55 mmHg.
This 55 mmHg pressure difference causes
diffusion of O2 from blood to tissue space.
 4) Diffusion on O2 from interstitial fluid to cells—
PO2 of interstitial fluid- 40mmHg
PO2 inside the cells ( 5-40)mmHg average 23
mm Hg.
So, the pressure difference =(40-23)mmHg17
mmHg.
This 17 mmHg pressure difference causes
diffusion of O2 from tissue space to cells.
 PROCESS OF TRANSPORT OF CO2—
1) Diffusion of CO2 from tissue cells to the
interstitial space-
Intracellular PCO2 = 46 mmHg.
PCO2 in interstitial space = 45 mmHg.
Thus there is only 1 mmHg pressure difference.
This pressure difference causes diffusion of CO2
from tissue cells to interstitial space.
 2) Diffusion of CO2 from interstitial space to
capillary blood—
Interstitial PO2 = 45 mmHg.
PCO2 in capillary (arterial blood) = 40 mmHg.
So, pressure difference =( 45-40)mmHg= 5
mmHg.
This pressure difference causes diffusion of CO2
from interstitial space to blood.
3) Transport of CO2 in the blood—

Transport as HCO3—70%.
Transport as carbamino compounds—23%.
Transport as dissolved CO2-- 7%
 4) Diffusion of CO2 from blood to lung alveoli-
PCO2 in pulmonary capillary (arterial end)
= 45 mmHg.
PCO2 in alveolar air = 40 mmHg.
So, the pressure difference =(45-40) mmHg=5
mmHg.
This pressure difference causes diffusion of CO2
from blood to alveolar air.
 OXYGEN HEMOGLOBIN DISSOCIATION CURVE-----
It is the relationship between the partial
pressure of oxygen and the percentage saturation of
hemoglobin with oxygen.
CRITERIA---
1. It is sigmoid shape.
2. It begins from zero point.
3. Several factor can move this curve left or right.
4. It is reversible phenomenon.
5. When PO2 is above 100 mmHg, the curve is
almost flat.
Factor influence shifting the curve---

Factor shifting the curve to the right—

- Decreased PH or increased H+ conc.
- Increased CO2 concentration.
- Increased temperature.
- Increased 2,3 biphosphoglycerate.
Factor shifting to the left---

- Increased PH or decreased H+ conc.

- Decreased temperature.
- Decreased CO2 concentration.
- Fetal Hb.
- Decreased 2,3 biphosphoglycerate.
 P50–
It is the partial pressure of oxygen in which
hemoglobin is half saturated.
Importance-
The higher the P50, the lower the affinity of
hemoglobin for oxygen.
Normal value—
Normal value of P50 is 28-30 mmHg.
 HALDANE EFFECT—
Binding of O2 with Hb reduces the affinity for
CO2 IS called Haldane effect. It is important in
promoting CO2 transport.
Explanation-
Due to the combination with O2, the Hb
becomes strongly acidic.It causes displacement of
CO2 in two ways—
1) The higly acidic Hb has low tendency to
combine with CO2.So CO2 displaced from blood.
 2) Because of the acidity, H+ are released in
excess. The H+ binds with HCO3 to form H2CO3.
The H2CO3 in turn dissociates into H2O and CO2.
The CO2 is released from blood into alveoli.

IMPORTANCE-
1) Release of CO2 from blood into the alveoli of
lungs.
2) Uptake of O2 by the blood.
 BOHR EFFECT—
The decrease in O2 affinity of hemoglobin when
the PH of blood falls is called the Bohr effect.
Explanation—
In lungs
As the blood passes through the lungs CO2
diffuses from blood into the alveoli.This reduces the
PCO2 and decreases H+ concentration. This effect
shift the O2-Hb dissociation curve to the left,
therefore the quantity of O2 that binds with Hb
becomes considerably increased, thus allowing
greater O2 transport to tissue.
 In tissue
As the blood pass through the tissue, CO2
passes to blood from tissue and increased PCO2
and H+ conc, shift the curve to right which
displace O2 from Hb thus delivery increased
amount of O2 to the tissue.
Chloride shift mechanism---

As a result of ionic imbalance due to more

HCO3 formation in the red blood cells, they pass
out of the red cells to the plasma and in turn CI
passes into red cells from plasma. This effect is
called chloride shift or Humber’s shift or
Hamburger phenomenon.
Mechanism---
CO2 after entering into RBC binds with
water and form carbonic acid which in turn with
the help of enzyme carbonic anhydrase
dissociates into H+ and HCO3-.The H+ binds with
the buffer system of hemoglobin.The HCO3- then
increases the alkalinity of RBC.To correct this
alkalinity of RBC, HCO3- diffuses into plasma
while chloride from plasma enters into RBC to
take their place.
Importance---

1) It helps in CO2 transport in the form of

HCO3-.
2) It maintains ionic balance both in the RBC
and the blood.
3) It maintains PH of blood.
 RESPIRATORY CENTER

The respiratory center composed of several group

of neurons located bilaterally in the medulla and
pons of the brain stem.It is divided into 3 major
collection of neurons---
1) Dorsal respiratory group---
Located in the dorsal portion of the medulla.
Function--
DRG are responsible for the normal rhythm of
respiration.
 2) Ventral res group—
Located in the ventrolateral part of the
medulla.
Function-
It becomes active during forced
breathing.During forceful respiration, these
neurons stimulate both inspiratory and expiratory
muscle.VRG remain totally inactive during quiet
respiration.
 Pneumotaxic center—
Located dorsally in the superior portion of the
pons.
Function-
Controls the rate and depth of breathing by
switch off the point of the inspiratory ramp.
when pneumotaxic signal is weak –rate
decrease but depth increase.
when signal is strong– rate increase but depth
decrease.
 INSPIRATORY RAMP SIGNAL---
Inspiratory ramp is the pattern of discharge
from dorsal respiratory group neurons
characterized by steady increase in amplitude of
the action potential. The nervous signal that is
transmitted to the inspiratory muscle, is not an
instantaneous burst of action potentials. Instead
in normal respiration, it begins weakly and
increases steadily in a ramp manner for about 2
sec. Then it ceases abruptly for approximately the
next 3 sec. During this period expiration occurs
due to switching off of ramp signal.
 At the end of 3 sec the inspiratory ramp signals
repeats in the same pattern and the cycle is
repeated.
CHEMICAL REGULATION OF RESPIRATION---
The chemical mechanism of regulation of
respiration is operated through the
chemoreceptors, the sensory nerve endings
which give response to chemical changes in
blood.
chemical subs that stimulate chemoreceptors
are—
Decreased PO2 .
Increased PCO2 .
Increased H+ .
TYPES OF CHEMORECEPTOR---
1. Central.
2. Peripheral.
1. Central chemoreceptors—
The chemoreceptors present in the brain is
called Central chemoreceptor.
Central chemoreceptors are located
bilaterally about .2 mm beneath the ventral surface
of the medulla.This area is known as
chemosensitive area and the neurons are called
chemoreceptors.They are in close contact with
blood and CSF.
 This area is highly sensitive to change in either
PCO2 or H+ conc and it in turn excites the other
portions of res center.
Mechanism of action-
Increased H+ conc- H+ is the important direct
stimulus for these neurons but H+ can not cross
the BBB or CSF B, for this reason increased H+
conc in blood has less effect.
Increased PCO2-- CO2 has less direct but potent
indirect effect.
 CO2 crosses the blood brain barrier ----
CO2 +H2O= H2CO3
H2CO3 = H+ + HCO3
The H+ now stimulate the central
chemoreceptor.
 Peripheral chemoreceptor—
They are in the carotid and aortic region.
carotid bodies—present in bifurcation of common
carotid arteries.
Aortic bodies--- located in the arch of aorta.
They are important for detecting changes of
oxygen in blood. Reduction in partial pressure of
oxygen is the most potent stimulant for the
peripheral chemoreceptors, they also respond to a
lesser extent to changes in CO2 and H+ conc.They
transmit nervous signals to the respiratory center in
the brain to help regulate respiratory activity.