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 INTRODUCTION
 This chapter presents the various definitions and concepts related
to intelligence and to individual differences. It also tries to explain
what intelligence is all about, using the theories advanced by the
experts in this area. Hence, you will also get to know the different
theories covering intelligence and in the ways they are similar or
different. As you will see later, the different theories of intelligence
are further classified according to how they are viewed and
studied by their proponents. The theories will also give you an
idea on the role of intelligence in students' academic
performance.
LEARNING POINT: INTELLIGENCE AND INDIVIDUAL
DIFFERENCES
 People belong to a group called human beings. Be as it may, each person has his own
unique characteristics, different from others. Each person has his own individuality
contributing to variations or differences within and among individuals. These are called
Individual differences. They are the variations and differences among individuals in
regard to one characteristic or on a number of characteristics. Individuals may have
differences along the following: physiological, psychological or intellectual differences,
differences in motor ability, academic performance, emotional differences, temperament,
aptitudes and interests, self-concept, learning styles, study habits, social and moral
development, and many more. Heredity and environment are the two main factors that
explain individual differences.
 --Intelligence is a significant source of variation among individuals. Individual differences
in intelligence bear on differences in other areas, like emotional intelligence academic
performance,learning styles and the like. For example, one's level of academic
performance can be explained by one's level of intelligence. Thus, in a class, students may
have differences in academic performance because of differences in their intelligence level
Individual differences provide the rationale why we study behavior, and why the study of
learning is challenging and interesting. As would-be teachers, this means the individual
differences in learning could be better understood by the study of intelligence.
LEARNING POINT: CONCEPTS ABOUT INTELLIGENCE
Understanding the nature of intelligence is a complex endeavor. The study a intelligence
has been done by various researchers and psychologists for a long time now,dating as
far back as Plato. The earlier theories about the nature of intelligence involved any or
more of the following themes (Woolfolk, 2013, p. 19).
 a. the capacity to learn
 b. the total knowledge a person has acquired
 c. ability to adapt to new situations and the environment in general
Intelligence is such a complex concept and there has been much argument and debate
about it. To this date, there is no single definition as to what makes for
[Link] findings show that there are moderate to high correlations among
different mental tests and because of this, some psychologists believe that intelligence is
a basic ability that affects performance in all cognitively-oriented tasks (Woolfolk 2013,
D. 110). There is no clear agreement as to what constitutes intelligence, nor a
consensus on how to measure it.
There are as many definitions of intelligence as there are theories that attempt to
explain its nature. Be as it may, there are certain behaviors which will indicate and lead
one to believe that a person is "intelligent." And based on studies, following are the
components of what many experts and theorists understand intelligence to be
(Ormrod, 2015).
 a. It is adaptive. It involves modifying and adjusting one's behaviors to accomplish
new tasks carefully.
 b. It is related to learning ability. Intelligent people learn information more quickly
and easily than the less intelligent ones.
 c. It involves use of prior knowledge to understand and analyze new situations
effectively.
 d. It involves the complex interaction and coordination of many different mental
processes.
 e. It may be seen in different arenas for example, on academic tasks or in social
situations.
 f. It is "culture-specific." What is intelligent behavior in one culture, may not
necessarily be intelligent behavior in another culture.
Sternberg (1986) contends that there are two general classifications of the definition of intelligence
the operational and the "real" definition. Operational definition defines what intelligence is through
the measure or the test that was used. There are tools or tests that attempt to measure this
characteristic. Real intelligence looks into the "true" nature of the characteristic being defined.
Some define intelligence as a general characteristic, while others define the term in specific and
situational terms. For example one can be very good in mathematics, but cannot hit one musical
note accurately. Let us further examine how different experts and authors try to define and
concretize the concept of intelligence ("Theories of Intelligence," n. d.). According to them,
intelligence is the combination of the ability to:

 a. Learn. This includes all kinds of formal and informal ways of learning through experience,
training, and education. It is the acquisition, retention, and use of knowledge.
 b. Recognize Problems. This includes recognizing a problem situation and transforming it into
more defined problems that need to be addressed.
 c. Solve Problems. This includes the use of knowledge in solving problems, accomplishing
tasks, fashioning products, and doing complex projects.
Thus far, the nature of intelligence has been discussed. There are certain elements common to the
different views put forward by researchers and experts in the area of intelligence and learning. First,
intelligence has to do with ability to solve problems.
 Second, one's intelligence is also the product of
experience and culture. Different individual exhibit their
own unique ways of approaching solutions to problems -
dependent on their intelligence levels. Recently, the most
widely accepted view about intelligence is that it has
many facets and is a hierarchy of abilities, with general
ability at the top and more specific abilities at the lower
levels. The theories on intelligence will further clarify what
theorists and expert believe intelligence to be as a
characteristic. The role of intelligence in learning, cannot
be more than emphasized. Intelligence has always been
related to learning either in the formal or informal settings.
If for example intelligence is the result of culture or
experience, then the implications on the kind of
experiences the teacher provides to students in the
classroom, are many.
 LEARNING POINT:THEORIES ABOUT INTELLIGENCE
 As mentioned earlier, the definition of intelligence draws from
the different theories of intelligence. To digress, a theory is a
tentative statement that tries to explain a phenomenon, which in
this case, is the nature of intelligence. Additionally, data or
evidence are needed to lend credence or proof to the veracity of
that theory. Thus, one should expect a lot of research and data-
gathering processes, to build up evidence in support of that
theory. Gathering evidence to prove or disprove a theory
therefore is the rationale for research studies and other scientific
efforts. A study of the different theories of intelligence will help
you better understand its nature. While the debate on the nature
of intelligence is still ongoing, it would help to know the different
theories that attempt to explain the nature of intelligence (Pal,
Pal, & Tourani 2004). Let us examine each of them.
FACULTY THEORY
 It is the oldest theory regarding the nature
of intelligence. It espouses that the mind is
made up of different faculties, like
reasoning, memory, discrimination,
imagination, and the likes. These faculties
are independent of each other, and can be
developed by training However, many
psychologists have maintained that
independent faculties in the brain do not
exist.
ONE-FACTOR OR UNI-FACTOR
THEORY
 This theory asserts that all abilities are
reduced to a single capacity of general
intelligence or "common sense." It
assumes that the different abilities are
correlated and that they share many
things in common. It does not recognize
differences among people It does not
recognize that an individual possesses
different abilities of different levels.
CHARLES SPEARMAN'S TWO-
FACTOR THEORY
 This theory asserts that intellectual
abilities comprise two factors - one
general ability or the g factor; and the
specific abilities; also known as the s
factor. The g factor is a universal inborn
ability, while the s factor is acquired
from the environment.
EDWARD THORNDIKE'S MULTI-
FACTOR THEORY
This theory asserts that there is no such thing as general ability.
It says that each mental ability requires an aggregate of
different sets of abilities. Following are the attributes of
intelligence:

 a. Level It is the level of difficulty of the task that can be

solved.
 b. Range - Refers to a number of tasks at any given degree
or level of difficulty.
 c. Area - The total number of situations at each level to which
the individual is able to respond.
 d. Speed - The rapidity at which the individual responds to
the situation or stimulus.
LOUIS L. THURSTONE'S PRIMARY MENTAL
ABILITIES/GROUP FACTOR THEORY
 This theory asserts that intelligent activities are not an expression of many highly specific factors as
espoused by Thorndike nor is it the expression of a general factor that pervades all mental abilities as
asserted by Spearman. Thurstone's theory claims that certain mental operations have in common a
"primary factor" that gives them functional unity and that differentiates them from other mental
operations. A second group of mental operations has its own unifying factor. There are other groups
of mental operations each having its own unifying primary factor. The seven primary factors are:
 1. Number Factor - Ability to do numerical calculations rapidly and accurately/ability to solve
mathematical problems.
 2. Verbal Factor (V) Ability to do tasks involving verbal comprehension/ability to define and
understand words.
 3. Space Factor (S) Ability to manipulate imaginary objects in space (spatial visualization)/ability to
visualize relationships.
 4. Memory Factor (M) - Ability to memorize material quickly and recall (associative memory).
 5. Word Fluency Factor - Ability to think of isolated words at a rapid rate/to produce words correctly.
 6. Reasoning Factor (F) - Ability to discover or find a rule or principle governing a group of
materials. series or
 7. Perception - Ability to see differences and similarities among objects.
JOY PAUL GUILFORD'S MODEL OF
THE STRUCTURE OF INTELLECT
Guilford proposed a 3-dimensional structure of intellect. According to
Guilford, every intellectual task can be classified according to a combination
of any of the following:
 a. Content content has five categories namely visual, auditory, symbolic,

semantic, and behavioral.

 b. Mental operations has six categories namely cognition, memory

(retention and memory recording), divergent production, convergent

production, and evaluation,
 c. Products resulting from operations the six categories are units,

classes relations, systems, transformations, and implications.

Take an example of an intellectual task which is to add five 4-digit numbers in
mathematics. To apply Guilford's model of intellect, the content of the
material is symbolic in nature, operations needed to carry out the task is
convergent production because the individual has to put together the
different data or information given and add these to be able to solve the
problem; and product would be units.
PHILIP E. VERNON'S
HIERARCHICAL THEORY
This theory tries to bridge the gap between Spearman's and Thurstone's
theories which view intelligence as occurring on the extremes. For example.
Spearman asserts that there are just two abilities, the general ability and the
specific abilities; while Thurstone claims that mental operations can be
grouped and are bound by a common primary factor. On the other hand,
Vernon contends that intelligence can be described as comprising abilities at
varying levels of generality, as follows:
 a. the highest level: "g" (general intelligence) factor with the largest

source of variance between individuals (Spearman)

 b. the next level: major group factors like verbal-numerical-educational

ability
 c. the next level: the minor group factors are deduced from major group

factors
 d. the bottom level: "s" (specific) factor of Spearman
CATTELL-HORN FLUID AND
CRYSTALLIZED INTELLIGENCE THEORY
The fluid aspect asserts that intelligence is a basic capacity due to inherited genes and the
crystallized theory is the capacity resulting from experiences, learning, and environment
Hunt (1995. in Theories of Intelligence, n. d.) contends that human intellectual competence
is divided into three dimensions which he derived from the works of Cattell in 1971 and
Horn. They are:
 Fluid Intelligence. It is the mental efficiericy and reasoning ability associated with brain
development. It has neurophysiological underpinnings related to changes in volume of
the brain. Fluid intelligence increases until late adolescenc and declines gradually with
age.
 b. Crystallized Intelligence. Ability to bring previously acquired often culturally -defined
problem solving methods to bear on the current problem. It is the ability to apply problem
- solving methods appropriate in the cultural context. In there, the problem solver knows
the method and recognizes they are relevant to the current situation. Crystallized
intelligence can increase throughout the life span.
 c. Visual-Spatial Reasoning. A somewhat specialized ability to use visual images and
visual relationships in problem-solving.
HOWARD GARDNER'S MULTIPLE
INTELLIGENCES THEORY
 Howard Gardner's Multiple Intelligences Theory Gardner identified
eight components of intelligence (Chapman, 1996 & Lazier, 2000).
He asserts that we are all born with the potential to develop a
multiplicity of intelligences. He argues that these intelligences are
distinct from each other, and that each person has some level of
each of these intelligences. He asserts that these intelligences are
most often overlooked and not tested by researchers and
psychologists, like those skills and abilities valued in different
cultures.
Intelligence Component Component Description of that Examples of occupations using that
Intelligence intelligence

Bodily/Kinesthetic The ability to use one's physical body well Dancers, athletes, acrobats

Interpersonal The ability to sense other people's feelings Salespersons, PR persons, politicians
and be in tune with them
Intrapersonal The ability to know and have a deep Psychologists, therapists, counselors/wise
understanding of one's own mind and body, elders monks
and be aware of one's own desires, feelings
and motives

Verbal/Linguistic The ability to communicate well, orally and in Poets, writers, orators
writing, perhaps in many languages

Logical/Mathematical The ability to learn science and mathematics; Mathematicians, engineers

the ability to handle complex, logical
arguments

Musical/Rhythmic The ability to learn, perform and compose Musicians, composers

music
Naturalistic The ability to know and understand different Biologists, naturalists
species (recognize patterns in nature)

Visual/spatial ability The ability to know where one is relative to fix Surgeons,sailors,fishermen charting the sea
locations ; ability to accomplish tasks requiring without navigational aids
3-dimensional visualization; ability to imagine
and manipulate visual objects in one’s mind
 The theory of Gardner has implications for teaching
using project-based approach For example in
creating teams to do a project, a teacher may select
the team whose members comprise the "highest" or
the biggest pool of talents or abilities as identified,
and thereafter encourage dividing specific tasks in
line with specific high levels of talents found in the
group. That way, each member of the group will
have a specific contribution to the accomplishment
of the project. Another strategy would be to allow
those with highest levels of intelligence in a certain
component to work in another area, to encourage
development of knowledge and skills in other areas.
ROBERT STERNBERG'S TRIARCHIC THEORY OF
INTELLIGENCE
Sternberg considers intelligence as a mental activity directed towards purposive adaptation to selection, and
shaping of real world environment relevant to one's life. He thinks Gardner's multiple intelligences are better viewed
as individual talents (Ormrod, 2015). Sternberg asserts that intelligent behavior is an interplay of three factors,
namely:
 a. environmental context in which the behavior occurs
 b. the way in which previous experiences are brought to bear on a particular class
 c. cognitive processes required by the task
While other researchers have identified different components of intelligence, Sternberg focused only on three,
domains, namely: ("Theories of Intelligence," n. d., Ormrod, 2015)
 1. Practical Intelligence. Ability to do well in formal and informal educational settings, adapting to and shaping
one's environment; street smarts
 2. Experiential Intelligence. Ability to deal with novel situations, ability to think in novel ways, ability to
effectively automate ways of dealing with novel situations so these are easily handled in the future.
 3. Componential Intelligence. Ability to process information effectively Metacognitive, executive, performance,
and knowledge acquisition components that help steer the thought processes.
In a sense, Sternberg's approach to the field of intelligence is similar to that of Gardner. However, the focus of
Gardner lies in identifying specific intelligences aligned with academic disciplines or occupations, while Sternberg
focuses on helping people develop components of intelligence that will help them perform best in whatever they do.
 Sternberg believes that intelligence can be
improved with study and practice. Some of his
work focuses on "street smarts" versus "school
smarts". He believes people are good and
talented in one of these areas, but not on the
other. This has to do with the idea that the type of
learning acquired out of school is different from
that acquired in school. Hence, teachers who are
skillful in using project-based approach to
teaching and learning, can help students design
projects consistent with their learning abilities and
interests.
DAVID PERKINS' ANALYSIS OF RESEARCH STUDIES ON
THE MEASUREMENT OF IQ AND PROGRAMS FOR
DEVELOPING BETTER IQ
 Perkins (1995. in "Theories of Intelligence," n. d.) strongly supports Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences. He came
up with the assertion that intelligence has three major components or dimensions.

1. Neural Intelligence. This is attributed to the efficiency and precision of one's

neurological system. A high level of neural efficiency and precision can be achieved if at the time of pregnancy, the
mother was on vitamins and other nutrition supplements or did not use drugs, alcohol, or was not exposed to
dangerous or toxic chemicals and substances.

2. Experiential Intelligence. Refers to one's accumulated knowledge and experience in different areas. It is thought of
as the accumulation of one's expertise, People who live in rich or stimulating environments comparatively have an
intellectual advantage over those who live in less stimulating environments.

3. Reflective Intelligence. Refers to one's broad-based strategies for learning, for attacking problems, and for
approaching intellectually-challenging tasks. This is the ability for reflective persistence, systematization, and
imagination, self-monitoring, self-regulation, and self-management.

In the book, Smart Schools that Perkins wrote in 1992, he pointed out research evidence that education can be
considerably improved by more appropriate teaching focusing on higher-order-cognitive skills and the use of project-
based learning. Again, this suggests the importance of practice, training, and experience in improving intelligence
(Moursund, 1999).
 JEAN PIAGET'S THEORY OF INTELLECTUAL
DEVELOPMENT
This theory asserts that the developing child builds intellectual structures or schema mental maps of networked concepts for
understanding and responding to physical experiences in the environment. A child's cognitive structures grow in
sophistication as be grows older and as he gains experience with his environment. Following are Piaget's stage of
intellectual development:

1. Sensorimotor Stage (approx. o to 2 years): The child learns through reflexes senses and movement. The child's thinking
involves, seeing, hearing, smelling moving, touching, tasting, and the like. Through constant interaction with the
environment, the child builds a set of concepts about reality and how it works. The child does not know that physical objects
exist even if they are not seen. (objec permanence).

2. Preoperational Stage (approx. 2-7 years): At this stage, the child begins to develop language and begins to use symbols
to represent objects. Generally, he thinks in the present and has difficulty with the past and the future. Cannot yet
conceptualize in abstract terms, and needs concrete physical situations to understand. Ha difficulty understanding the point
of view of another person.

3. Concrete Operations Stage (7-11): As physical experience accumulates, the chili starts to build logical structures that
explain his physical experiences. Starts to solve problems not only with concrete objects, but with abstract ideas as well
Understands, past, present, and future. Can think logically about concrete problems.

4. Formal Operations Stage (11-15): By this time, the individual has developed mental structures that enable him to do
abstract reasoning. Can think hypothetically and deductively. Can solve problems in logical fashion. Thinking approximates
that of an adult and includes conceptual reasoning.

As a way of understanding better the theories that explain the nature of intelligence an attempt has been made to categorize
and come up with a system and put in proper perspective what intelligence is all about. This categorizing process looks at
theories of intelligence as belonging to two groups: factor theories and cognitive theories of intelligence.
 Cognitive Theories Factor Theories

Faculty Theories Uni-factor Theory

Spearman's Two-factor Theory

Thorndike's Multi-factor Theory

Thurstone's Primary Abilities/Group Factor Theory

Guilford's Model of the Structure of Intellect Vernon's Hierarchical Theory

Cattell-Horn's Fluid and Crystallized Intelligence

Theory

Gardner's Multiple Intelligences Theory

 Thus far, what have been presented are definitions and theories of intelligence. At best, they are
abstract ideas, which means that the concept of intelligence needs to be further studied.
However, Gardner made an attempt to define intelligence and its components in terms of
behavioral indicators. These are behaviors presumed to indicate or suggest the presence or
absence of that intelligence characteristic, and which are observable. However, the study of
intelligence has reached a more advanced stage, than reliance on behavioral indicators by the
development of tests or tools that measure it. Thus, intelligence tests, whose validity have been
established by their developers, should be a more reliable and scientific way of measuring
intelligence. However, such tools or tests are not readily available in schools. So in the absence
of these tools, the teacher can use behavioral indicators of intelligence to get a feel as to where
their students are, since these indicators are grounded on the corresponding theories developed.
In many ways, intelligence provides the "foundation" for the thinking processes in learning like,
thinking, knowing, and problem-solving. It defines what one can or cannot learn. In other words,
how learners approach and deal with various learning materials depends to a certain extent on
their level of intelligence. These make up for individual differences in how learners learn. To
emphasize a point, all these theories of intelligence attempt to explain the nature of intelligence,
and its importance should not be overlooked because it impacts on the teaching learning
process. A teacher should be able to consider the abilities of his students when planning for
instructional materials and experiences; and in implementing them in the classroom. Knowing
that there is such a concept as individual differences, teachers would be able to adjust, and
address different needs and abilities of students with appropriate classroom experiences, and
learning materials.