UNIT III Shift Keying Techniques
PCM
• Amplitude shift keying (ASK)
• Frequency shift keying (FSK)
• Phase shift keying (PSK)
• The precoder performs level conversion and then encodes the
incoming data into groups of bits that modulate an analog carrier.
• The modulated carrier is shaped (filtered), amplified, and then
transmitted through the transmission medium to the receiver.
• In the receiver, the incoming signals are filtered, amplified, and then
applied to the demodulator and decoder circuits, which extracts the
original source information from the modulated carrier.
• The clock and carrier recovery circuits recover the analog carrier
and digital timing (clock) signals from the incoming modulated
wave since they are necessary to perform the demodulation process.
• Information capacity
IαBxt
where I= information capacity (bits per second)
B = bandwidth (hertz)
t = transmission time (seconds)
• Shannon’s limit for Information capacity
I=B log2(1+S/N)
I=3.32 B log10(1+S/N)
where I = information capacity (bps)
B = bandwidth (hertz)
S/N = signal-to-noise power ratio (unitless)
• M-ary encoding
N=log2M
2N = M
where N = number of bits necessary
M = number of conditions, levels, or combinations
• Baud (symbols/sec)
Baud refers to the rate of change of a signal on the transmission medium after encoding
and modulation have occurred.
Baud=1/ts
Ts = time of one signaling element
Minimum bandwidth
• The minimum theoretical bandwidth necessary to propagate a signal
is called the minimum Nyquist bandwidth or sometimes the
minimum Nyquist frequency. Thus, fb = 2B, where fb is the bit rate
in bps and B is the ideal Nyquist bandwidth.
fb = B log2 M
where fb = channel capacity (bps)
B = minimum Nyquist bandwidth (hertz)
M = number of discrete signal or voltage levels
Baud= fb/N
ASK
• Digital amplitude modulation (DAM)
• On off keying (OOK)
Vask(t)=[1+vm(t)][A/2 cosωct]
where
vask(t) = amplitude-shift keying wave
vm(t) = digital information (modulating) signal (volts)
A/2 = unmodulated carrier amplitude (volts)
ωc = analog carrier radian frequency (radians per second,
2fct)
• N=1
• B=fb/1 = fb
• The rate of change of the ASK waveform (baud) is the same as
the rate of change of the binary input (bps).
FSK
• Vfsk(t)=Vc cos(2π[fc + Vm(t)Δf]t)
Where
vfsk(t) = binary FSK waveform
Vc = peak analog carrier amplitude (volts)
fc = analog carrier center frequency (hertz)
f = peak change (shift) in the analog carrier frequency
• f = |fm – fs| / 2
f = frequency deviation (hertz)
|fm – fs| = absolute difference between the mark and space frequencies
(hertz)
N=1
Baud=fb/1 = fb
The minimum bandwidth for FSK is given as
B = |(fs – fb) – (fm – fb)|
= |(fs– fm)| + 2fb
and since |(fs– fm)| equals 2Δf, the minimum bandwidth can be
approximated as
B = 2(Δf + fb)
• fa=fb/2
• The formula used for modulation index in FM
is also valid for FSK; thus,
h = Δf / fa (unitless)
FSK transmitter
Δf=vm(t)kl
FSK receiver
BPSK (phase reversal keying or
biphase modulation)
• BPSK output = [sin (2fat)] x [sin (2fct)]
fa = maximum fundamental frequency of binary
input (hertz)
fc = reference carrier frequency (hertz)
Logic 1 = +1/2 V
Logic 0 = -1/2 V
QPSK
• N=2
• M=4
• Four possible input combinations 00,01,10 and
11.
• Modulator generates four possible output
phases +45⁰, +135 ⁰, -45 ⁰ and -135 ⁰
QPSK
Bandwidth considerations
• Input data rate B=fb/N=fb/2
• I channel or Q channel bit rate is one-half of
fb/2 i.e, fb/4
Offset-QPSK
• phase transition goes through the origin and this results into
suddon phase reversal in the time domain signal envelope.
When such signal goes through the nonlinear amplification
will result into spectrum widening.
• To overcome regeneration of sidelobes and spectrum
widening, linear amplifier is employed. But linear amplifiers
are less efficient. Hence OQPSK has been developed.
• OQPSK prevents phase transition from the origin by shifting
one stream by a bit period and allowing only one bit to change
between the transitions.
References
1. 1. Simon Haykin and Michael Moher, An Introduction to analog and digital
communications, John Wiley and Sons, 2nd Edition, 2007.
2. 2. Wayne Tomasi, Advanced Electronic Communication Systems, Pearson
Education, 6thEdition, 2009.
