Chapter 1

Introduction to Databases
Chapter 1 - Objectives
 Some common uses of database systems.
 Characteristics of file-based systems.
 Problems with file-based approach.
 Meaning of the term database.
 Meaning of the term Database Management
System (DBMS).
Chapter 1 - Objectives
 Typical functions of a DBMS.
 Major components of the DBMS environment.
 Personnel involved in the DBMS environment.
 History of the development of DBMSs.
 Advantages and disadvantages of DBMSs.
Examples of Database Applications
 Purchases from the supermarket
 Purchases using your credit card
 Booking a holiday at the travel agents
 Using the local library
 Taking out insurance
 Renting a video
 Using the Internet
 Studying at university
File-Based Systems
 Collection of application programs that perform
services for the end users (e.g. reports).

 Each program defines and manages its own data.

File-Based Processing
Limitations of File-Based Approach
 Separation and isolation of data
 Each program maintains its own set of data.

 Users of one program may be unaware of

potentially useful data held by other programs.

 Duplication of data
 Same data is held by different programs.

 Wasted space and potentially different values

and/or different formats for the same item.

Limitations of File-Based Approach
 Data dependence
 File structure is defined in the program code.

 Incompatible file formats

 Programs are written in different languages,

and so cannot easily access each other’s files.

 Fixed Queries/Proliferation of application programs

 Programs are written to satisfy particular

functions.
 Any new requirement needs a new program.
Database Approach
 Arose because:
 Definition of data was embedded in application

programs, rather than being stored separately

and independently.
 No control over access and manipulation of data

beyond that imposed by application programs.

 Result:
 the database and Database Management System

(DBMS).
Database
 Shared collection of logically related data (and a
description of this data), designed to meet the
information needs of an organization.

 System catalog (metadata) provides description

of data to enable program–data independence.

 Logically related data comprises entities,

attributes, and relationships of an organization’s
information.
But what is data? And where
is it now?
Data is factual information about objects and
concepts, such as:
• measurements
• statistics
You can find it in:
 filing cabinets
 spreadsheets
 folders
 lists
 colleagues’ memories
 piles of papers on your desk
What does “managing
information” mean?
 Making information work for us
 Making information useful
 Avoiding "accidental disorganisation”
 Making information easily accessible and
integrated with the rest of our work
Database Management System
(DBMS)
 A software system that enables users to define,
create, maintain, and control access to the
database.

 (Database) application program: a computer

program that interacts with database by issuing
an appropriate request (SQL statement) to the
DBMS.
Database Management System
(DBMS)
Database Approach
 Data definition language (DDL).
 Permits specification of data types,

structures and any data constraints.

 All specifications are stored in the database.

 Data manipulation language (DML).

 General enquiry facility (query language) of

the data.
Database Approach
 Controlled access to database may
include:
 a security system
 an integrity system
 a concurrency control system
 a recovery control system
 a user-accessible catalog.
Views
 Allows each user to have his or her own view of
the database.

 A view is essentially some subset of the database.

Views - Benefits
 Reduce complexity
 Provide a level of security
 Provide a mechanism to customize the
appearance of the database
 Present a consistent, unchanging picture of the
structure of the database, even if the underlying
database is changed
Components of DBMS Environment
Components of DBMS Environment
DBMS
===============
Design tools
Table Creation
Form Creation
Query Creation
Report Creation Application
Procedural
Database language
Programs
compiler (4GL)
=============
Run time
Database contains:
Form processor
User’s Data Query processor
User
Metadata Report Writer Interface
Indexes Language Run time Applications
Application Metadata
Components of DBMS Environment
 Hardware
 Can range from a PC to a network of
computers.
 Software
 DBMS, operating system, network software
(if necessary) and also the application
programs.
 Data
 Used by the organization and a description of

this data called the schema.

Components of DBMS Environment
 Procedures
 Instructions and rules that should be
applied to the design and use of the
database and DBMS.
 People
 Includes database designers, DBAs,
application programmers, and end-
users.
Roles in the Database Environment
 Data Administrator (DA)
 Database planning
 Development and maintenance of standards, policies and procedures
 Database Administrator (DBA)
 Physical realization of database
 Physical DB design and implementation
 Security and integrity control
 Maintenance of operational system
 Database Designers (Logical and Physical)
 Identifying the data, relationship between data and constrain on data
 Mapping the logical DB design into tables and constraints
 Application Programmers
 End Users (naive and sophisticated)
History of Database Systems
 First-generation
 Hierarchical Model (1960’s and 1970’s)
 Similar to data structures in programming
languages.

Books
(id, title)

Authors
Publisher Subjects
(first, last)
History of Database Systems
 Network Model (1970’s)
 Provides for single entries of data and navigational

“links” through chains of data.

Authors

Subjects Books

Publishers

Problems:
 Changes in data structure require changes in application
programs that access that structure
 No Many-to-Many relationships
 Programmers must be thoroughly familiar with the database
structure.
History of Database Systems
 Second generation
 Relational Model (1980’s)
 Provides a conceptually simple model for data as
relations (typically considered “tables”) with all data
Authorid Author name
visible. pubid pubname
1 Harper
1 Smith
2 Wynar
2 Addison
3 Jones
3 Oxford
Book ID Title pubid Author id 4 Duncan
4 Que
1 Introductio 2 1 5 Applegate
2 The history 4 2
3 New stuff ab 3 3
4 Another title 2 4 Book ID Subid
Subid Subject
5 And yet more 1 5 1 2
1 cataloging
2 1
2 history
3 3
3 stuff
4 2
4 3

Advantage: Many-to-Many relationships are implemented

Problems: “Navigation” is even harder
History of Database Systems
 Third generation
 Object-Oriented

 Encapsulates data and operations as “Objects”

Books
(id, title)

Authors
Publisher Subjects
(first, last)
History of Database Systems
 Object-Relational (1990’s)
 Combines the well-known properties of the

Relational Model with such OO features as:

 User-defined datatypes
 User-defined functions
 Inheritance and sub-classing
Advantages of DBMSs
 Control of data redundancy
 Data consistency
 More information from the same amount of data
 Sharing of data
 Improved data integrity
 Improved security
 Enforcement of standards
 Economy of scale
Advantages of DBMSs
 Balance conflicting requirements
 Improved data accessibility and responsiveness
 Increased productivity
 Improved maintenance through data
independence
 Increased concurrency
 Improved backup and recovery services
Disadvantages of DBMSs
 Complexity
 Size
 Cost of DBMS
 Additional hardware costs
 Cost of conversion
 Performance
 Higher impact of a failure