REFERENCES

1. “Computer Organization”,Carl
Hamacher, Zvonko Vranesic and
Safwat Zaky, Fifth Edition, McGrawHill

2. “Computer Organization and Design”,

Davis A Patterson & John L Hennessy,
Third Edition, Elsevier

3. “Computer Architecture: A Quantitative

Approach”, John L Hennessy & Davis A
Patterson
1
 CONTENTS
Today’s Lecture will cover:
- Introduction to Computers
- Various Application of Computers
- Generation of computers
- Classes of Computing Applications
- Understanding Program Performance
- Below your Program
- High-Level Language to the Language of
Hardware
2
CONTENTS
- Inside the Computer
- Communication with Other Computers
- Technologies for Building Processors and Memories
- Real Stuff : Manufacturing Pentium 4 Chips
- Basic Operational Concepts

3
 DEFINITION OF A
COMPUTER
What is it?

A Computer is a machine capable of manipulating

data in complex, programmable ways.

wikipedia

4
GENERATIONS

•First generation Computer, 1940-1956,

defined by Vacuum tubes.
•Second generation Computer, 1956-1963,
defined by Transistors
•Third generation Computer, 1964-1971,
defined by Integrated Circuits (IC)
•Fourth generation computer, 1971-today,
defined by Microprocessors
•Fifth generation computer, Present and
Beyond, defined by Artificial Intelligence
(AI)
5
GENERATION 0 :
MECHANICAL COMPUTERS (1642-1945)

 Abacus
 Pascal’s Mechanical Calculator

6
GENERATION 0 :
MECHANICAL COMPUTERS (1642-1945)

 Leibniz Calculator

7
GENERATION 0 :
MECHANICAL COMPUTERS (1642-1945)

Programmable devices
 Jacquard’s loom

8
GENERATION 0 :
MECHANICAL COMPUTERS (1642-1945)

 Babbage’s Difference Engine

9
FIRST GENERATION(1940-
1956)
 Stored Program Concept(John von Neumann)
 Vacuum tubes

10
SECOND GENERATION(1956-
1963)
 Transistor
 Development of programming languages (COBOL,
FORTRAN)

11
THIRD GENERATION(1964-
1973)
 IC technology
 Microprogramming, parallelism, pipelining
 Cache memory, Virtual memory

12
FOURTH GENERATION(1973-
1985)
 VLSI technology
 Microprocessors
 LAN, WAN, Internet

13
BEYOND THE FOURTH
GENERATION(1985-??)
 AI
 Parallel processing
 Networking

14
CLASSES OF COMPUTING
APPLICATIONS
• Desktop Computers
 Workstations
 Mainframes
 Supercomputers
 Minicomputers
• Servers
• Embedded computers

15
 DESKTOP
COMPUTER

A Computer designed for use by an individual,

usually incorporating a graphics display, keyboard
and mouse

16
SERVERS

A computer used for running larger programs for

multiple users often simultaneously and typically
accessed only via network

17
SUPERCOMPUTERS

A class of computers with the highest performance

and cost; they are configured as servers and
typically cost millions of dollars

- Tsubame
- Earth simulator
- Param

Supercomputer
18
EMBEDDED COMPUTER

A computer inside another device used for running

one predetermined application or collection of
software

19
Handheld/Pocket PC PDA Tablet PC

Desktop Laptop

20
Workstation

21
Mainframe

22
Supercomputer

23
UNDERSTANDING PROGRAM
PERFORMANCE
The performance of a program depends on a
combination of the effectiveness of the algorithms
used in the program, the software systems used to
create and translate the program into machine
instructions, and the effectiveness of the computer
in executing those instructions

24
BELOW YOUR PROGRAM

Application software
System software
Hardware

25
SYSTEM SOFTWARE

Software that provides services that are commonly

useful, including operating system, compilers and
assemblers

26
OPERATING SYSTEM

Supervising program that manages the resources of a

computer for the benefit of the programs that run
on that machine

27
COMPLIER

A Program that translates high-level language

statements into assembly language statements

28
HIGH-LEVEL LANGUAGE TO
THE LANGUAGE OF
HARDWARE

Assembler – A program that translates a symbolic

version of instructions into the binary version

Assembly language A symbolic representation of

machine instruction

29
HIGH-LEVEL LANGUAGE TO
THE LANGUAGE OF
HARDWARE

A portable language such as C, Fortran, or Java

composed of words and algebraic notation that can
be translated by a complier into assembly language

30
UNDER THE COVERS

Five Classic components of computer

- Input
- Output
- Memory
- Datapath
- Control Processor

31
INPUT

A mechanism through which the computer is fed

information, such as the keyboard, mouse,
scanners, etc…

32
OUTPUT DEVICE

A Mechanism that conveys the result of a

computation to a user or another computer

33
OPENING THE BOX

Motherboard – A plastic board containing packages

of ICs, including processor, cache memeory, and
connectors for I/O devices such as networks and
disks

IC- Also called Chip A device combining dozens to

millions of transistors

34
OPENING THE BOX

Memory – The storage area in which programs

are kept when they are running and that
contains the data needed by the running
programs

Central Processor Unit (CPU)

Also called processor. The active part of the
computer, which contains the datapath and
control and which adds numbers, tests
numbers, signals I/O devices to activate, and
so on..
35
Datapath – The component of the processor that
performs arithmetic operations

Control – The component of the processor that

commands the datapath, memory, and I/O devices
according to the instructions of the program

36
DRAM – Memory built as an integrated circuit, it provides
random access to any location

Cache Memory – A small, fast memory that acts as a

buffer for a slower, larger memory

37
LAST WEEK QUESTION

 What is liquid Crystal in LCD display.

 Liquid crystal – substance that has properties

between those of a conventional liquid and a solid

38
 Liquid crystal flow like a liquid, but have the
molecules in the liquid arranged and
oriented in a crystal-like way.

 LCD Display is a thin, flat display device

made up of any number of color or
monochrome pixels arrayed in front of a light
source or reflector. Each pixel consists of a
layer of liquid crystal molecules suspended
between two transparent electrodes and two
polarizing filters, the axes of polarity of
which are perpendicular to each .
39
A SAFE PLACE FOR DATA

Memory – The storage area in which programs are

kept when they are running and that contains the
data needed by the running programs

Volatile Memory – Storage, such as DRAM, that only

retains only if it is receiving power

40
Nonvolatile memory – A form of memory that retains
data even in the absence of a power source and that is
used to store programs between runs. Magnetic disk is
nonvolatile and DRAM is not.

41
 Primary Memory : Also called main memory. Volatile
memory used to hold programs while they are running;
typically consists of DRAM in today’s computers
 Secondary Memory : Nonvolatile memory used to store
programs and data between runs; typically consists of
magnetic disks in today's computers

42
Magnetic disk ( Also called Hard disk )

A form of nonvolatile secondary memory composed

of rotating platters coated with a magnetic
recording material

43
COMMUNICATING WITH
OTHER COMPUTERS
Network
LAN
WAN

Advantages
-Communication
- Resource Sharing
- Nonlocal access

44
TECHNOLOGIES FOR
BUILDING PROCESSORS AND
MEMORIES
Silicon – A natural element which is a semiconductor

Semiconductor – A substance that does not conduct

electricity well

45
REAL STUFF: MANUFACTURING
PENTIUM 4 CHIPS

 Silicon ingot
 Slicer
 Blank wafers
 Patterned wafers
 Wafer tester
 Dicer
 Tested dies

46
47
MOORE’S LAW IN MICROPROCESSORS

1000

100 2X growth in 1.96 years!

Transistors (MT)

10
P6
Pentium® proc
1 486
386
0.1 286
8085 8086
0.01 8080
8008
4004
0.001
1970 1980 1990 2000 2010
Year
Transistors on Lead Microprocessors double every 2 years

Courtesy, Intel 48
METRICS TO EVALUATE A
COMPUTER
Metrics
 Speed – delay, frequency
 Power Dissipation
 Energy to perform a function
 Cost
 Scalability
 Reliability

49
BASIC OPERATIONAL
CONCEPTS
To perform a given task, an appropriate program
consisting of a list of instruction is stored in the
memory. Individual instructions are brought from
the memory into the processor, which executes the
specified operation.

50
Add LOCA, R0

Load LOCA, R1
Add R1, R0

51
 Memory

MAR MDR
Control
PC R
0

R
1
IR Processor

ALU
R
n- 1
n general purpose
registers

Connections between the processor and the memory

52
TERMS USED

 IR - instruction currently being executed

 PC - memory address of next instruction to be
fetched and executed
 MAR - address of location to be accessed
 MDR - data to be written into or read out of the
addressed location
 Interrupts and ISRs

53
FUNCTIONS…

 Instruction Register : contains the instruction that

is being executed. Its output is available to the
control circuits, that generates the timing signals for
control of the actual processing circuits needed to
execute the instruction.

54
 Program Counter : is a register, that contains the
memory address of the instruction currently being
executed. During the execution of the current
instruction, the contents of program counter is
updated to correspond to the address of the next
instruction.

55
 Memory Address Register (MAR) : holds the
address of the memory location to or from which data
is to be transferred.

Memory Data Register (MDR): contains the data to

be written into or read-out of the addressed memory
location.

56
 General- purpose Registers : are used for
holding data, intermediate results of operations.
They are also known as scratch-pad registers.

57
STEPS INVOLVING
INSTRUCTION FETCH AND
EXECUTION
INSTRUCTION FETCH

 Execution of a program starts by setting the PC to

point to the first instruction of the program.
 The contents of PC are transferred to the MAR and a
Read control signal is sent to the memory

58
 The addressed word (here it is the first instruction of
the program) is read out of memory and loaded into the
MDR

 The contents of MDR are transferred to the IR for

instruction decoding

59
INSTRUCTION EXECUTION

The operation field of the instruction in IR is examined to

determine the type of operation to be performed by the
ALU

The specified operation is performed by obtaining the

operand(s) from the memory locations or from GP
registers.

60
 Fetching the operands from the memory
requires sending the memory location
address to the MAR and initiating a Read
cycle.

 The operand is read from the memory into

the MDR and then from MDR to the ALU.

 The ALU performs the desired operation on

one or more operands fetched in this
manner and sends the result either to
memory location or to a GP register.

61
 The result is sent to MDR and the address
of the location where the result is to be
stored is sent to MAR and Write cycle is
initiated.

 Thus, the execute cycle ends for the

current instruction and the PC is
incremented to point to the next instruction
for a new fetch cycle.

62
BUS STRUCTURES

 BUS – Group of lines (wires) that serves as a

connecting path for several devices

Single-bus structure

63
 Data Bus : It is used for transmission of data. The
number of data lines correspond to the
number of bits in a word.

Address Bus: it carries the address of the main memory

location from where the data can be accessed.

Control Bus: it is used to indicate the direction of data

transfer and to coordinate the timing of events during the
transfer

64
BUS STRUCTURES

Single-bus structure

Two-bus structure

65
 Input Output Memory Processor

Single-bus structure

• Only two units can actively use the bus at any given time
• Devices connected to bus vary in speed

66
ADVANTAGES OF SINGLE-BUS
STRUCTURE
 Low Cost
 Flexibility for attaching peripheral devices

Draw Back
low operating speed
Found in small computers such as minicomputers
and microcomputers.

67
TWO-BUS STRUCTURE
I/O bus

Input
Memory
Processor

Output

68
 The bus is said to perform two distinct functions by
connecting the I/O units with memory and processor
unit with memory. The processor interacts with the
memory through a memory bus and handles
input/output functions over I/O bus.

The main advantage of this structure is good operating

speed but on account of more cost.

69
PERFORMANCE

 Performance - measure of how quickly the

computer can execute programs

 Speed – Design of Hardware and its machine

Language

 Best Performance – Design of compiler, Machine

instruction set, and the hardware in a coordinated
way

70
Execution depends on all units in a computer system
Processor Time depends on the hardware involved in the execution of
individual machine Instruction

Main Cache
memory memory Processor

Bus

71
PROCESSOR CLOCK

 Processor circuits are controlled by timing signal

called clock
 Clock cycle – regular time interval
 If P – length of one clock cycle is an important
parameters that effects processor performance
 Hertz (Hz) – cycles per second

72
 500 millions cycles per second – 500 MHz

 1250 millions cycles per second – 1.25 GHz

73
BASIC PERFORMANCE
EQUATION
NxS
T =
R

T – processor time(program execution time)

N – number of instruction executions
S – avg. no. of basic steps to execute 1 machine
instruction
R – clock rate

74
 INSTRUCTION SET
 RISC ( Reduced Instruction Set Computers)
 CISC ( Complex Instruction Set Computers)

75
76
MULTIPROCESSORS AND
MULTICOMPUTERS

 Shared-memory multiprocessor systems

 Message-passing multicomputers

77