Earth’s Chemistry

Chapter 4
 OBJECTIVES:
Compare chemical properties and physical
properties of matter.
Describe the basic structure of an atom.
Compare atomic number, mass number,
and atomic mass.
Define isotope.
Describe the arrangement of elements in
the periodic table.
 Matter
Matter = the substances of which an
object is made.
Matter is anything that takes up space and
has mass.
Matter has 2 distinguishing properties:

Physical --- can be observed without changing
the substance. (Ex. Density, boiling point, etc.)

Chemical --- describes how a substance
interacts with other substances to produce
different kinds of matter. (Ex. Iron interacts
with oxygen to form rust)
 Element
An element is a substance
that cannot be broken down
into simpler, stable
substances by chemical
means.
Each element has physical
and chemical properties that
can be used to identify it.
Approximately 90 elements
occur naturally on Earth. Eight
of these make up more than
98% of Earth’s crust.
 Atomic Structure
Smallest particle or unit of an element
Atoms are made of smaller parts ----
protons, neutrons, and electrons
Protons ----- positively charged
Neutrons ---- no charge (neutral)
Electrons ---- negatively charged
Protons and Neutrons found in the nucleus
--- NOT ELECTRONS --- found outside
in electron clouds
 The Nucleus
The protons and neutrons of an atom are
packed close to one another.
Together they form the nucleus, which is a
small region in the center of an atom.
The nucleus has a positive charge.
Why?
Because protons have a positive charge
and neutrons have no charge.
The Electron Cloud
The electrons of an atom move in a certain
region of space called an electron cloud
that surrounds the nucleus.
Because opposite charges attract each
other, the negatively charged electrons are
attracted to the positively charged nucleus.
This attraction is what holds electrons in
the atom.
Atomic number = equals the number of
protons in the atom.
An uncharged atom has the same amount
of protons & electrons so there’s no
charge. It’s said to be neutral
Example --- Oxygen has an atomic
number of 8 so it has 8 protons & 8
electrons
Atomic mass number = protons + neutrons
Protons & neutrons have an atomic mass
of 1
 Isotopes
Some atoms don’t have the same number
of neutrons
Each additional neutron increases the
mass number.
Isotopes = atoms of the same element that
differ from each other by mass number.
Examples of Isotopes
 Elements
All matter is made up of elements.
Element = any substance that can’t break
down any further (Ex. oxygen, iron,
nitrogen, etc.).
Periodic table --- made up of elements.
Universal symbol for elements --- consists
of either one letter or two (Note how it’s
written)
Over 90 elements occur naturally; others
have been created.
 Average Atomic Mass
Because the isotopes of an element have
different masses, the periodic table uses an
average atomic mass for each element. The
average atomic mass is the weighted average
of the atomic masses of the naturally occurring
isotopes of an element.
Example: Hydrogen has three isotopes.
Each isotope has a different mass because
each has a different number of neutrons.
By calculating the weighted average of the atomic
masses of the three naturally occurring hydrogen
isotopes, you can determine the average atomic
mass.
Average Atomic Mass
Valence Electrons and Periodic
Properties
Based on similarities in their chemical
properties, elements on the periodic table
are arranged in columns, which are called
groups.
An atom’s chemical properties are largely
determined by the number of the
outermost electrons in an atom’s electron
cloud. These electrons are called valence
electrons.
Valence Electrons and Periodic
Properties
Elements whose atoms have only one,
two, or three valence electrons tend to
lose electrons easily. These elements
have metallic properties and are generally
classified as metals. Elements whose
atoms have from four to seven valence
electrons are more likely to gain electrons.
Many of these elements, which are in
Groups 13–17, are classified as nonmetals
Elements in Earth’s Crust
 Solids, Liquids, & Gases
Solids = particles that make this up are packed
tightly together in fixed positions
Solids have definite shape & volume
Liquids = have definite volume but not shape
Liquids take the shape of the container
Particles tightly packed, but move freely in
relation to each other
Gases = No definite shape or volume
Particles farther apart & move more freely &
faster
 Combinations of Atoms
Key Ideas
Define compound and molecule.
Interpret chemical formulas.
Describe two ways that electrons form
chemical bonds between atoms.
Explain the differences between
compounds and mixtures.
 Combinations of Atoms
Compound --- 2 or more elements bonded
together.
Example of a compound--- Water
Water is made up of the elements
hydrogen and oxygen.
Molecule --- smallest unit of a compound.
 Chemical Formulas
A chemical formula combines letters and numbers
that show which elements make up a compound.
It also shows the number of atoms of each
element that are required to make a molecule of a
compound.
The chemical formula for water is H2O, which
indicates that each water molecule consists of two
atoms of hydrogen and one atom of oxygen. In a
chemical formula, the subscript that appears after
the symbol for an element shows the number of
atoms of that element that are in a molecule.
 Chemical Equations
Elements and compounds often combine
through chemical reactions to form new
compounds. The reaction of these elements and
compounds can be described in a chemical
equation.
Equation Structure
In a chemical equation, such as the one shown
below, the reactants, which are on the left-hand
side of the arrow, form the products, which are
on the right-hand side of the arrow. In a
chemical equation, the arrow means “gives” or
“yields.”
 Chemical Equations
In this equation, one molecule of methane, CH4,
reacts with two molecules of oxygen, O2, to yield
one molecule of carbon dioxide, CO2, and two
molecules of water, H2O.
 Balanced Equations
Chemical equations are useful for showing the
types and amounts of the products that could
form from a particular set of reactants. However,
the equation must be balanced to show this
information. A chemical equation is balanced
when the number of atoms of each element on
the right side of the equation is equal to the
number of atoms of the same element on the left
side
 Balanced Equations
To balance an equation, you cannot change the
chemical formulas. Changing the formulas would
mean that different substances were in the
reaction. To balance an equation, you must put
numbers called coefficients in front of chemical
formulas.
 Chemical Bonds
Chemical bonds = forces that hold atoms
together to make compounds
Ionic bonds = electrons are transferred
from one atom to another
Ion = an atom or group of atoms that carry
an electrical charge ( positive or negative)
Covalent bond = share electrons
Chemical formulas = a representation of a
compound (Ex. H2O)
 Ions
When an electron is transferred from one atom
to another, both atoms become charged. A
particle, such as an atom or molecule, that
carries a charge is called an ion.
Ionic Bonds
The attractive force between oppositely charged
ions that results from the transfer of electrons
from one atom to another is called an ionic
bond. ionic bond. A compound that forms
through the transfer of electrons is called an
ionic compound. Most ionic compounds form
when electrons are transferred between the
atoms of metallic and nonmetallic elements.
 Covalent Bonds
A bond that is formed by the attraction between
atoms that share electrons is covalent. When
atoms share electrons, the positive nucleus of
each atom is attracted to the shared negative
electrons.
The pull between the positive and negative
charges is the force that keeps these atoms
joined.
Water is an example of a covalent compound—
that is, a compound formed by the sharing of
electrons.
 Polar Covalent Bonds
In many cases, atoms that are covalently
bonded do not equally share electrons. The
reason for this is that the ability of atoms of
some elements to attract electrons from atoms
of other elements differs. A covalent bond in
which the bonded atoms have an unequal
attraction for the shared electrons is called a
polar covalent bond.
 Mixture vs. Solution
Mixture = a material that contains 2 or
more substances that are not chemically
combined
Solutions = a mixture in which one
substance is uniformly dispersed in
another substance.
 Heterogeneous Mixtures
Mixtures in which two or more substances
are not uniformly distributed are called
heterogeneous mixtures. For example, the
igneous rock granite is a heterogeneous
mixture of crystals of the minerals quartz,
feldspar, hornblende, and biotite.
 Homogeneous Mixtures
In chemistry, the word homogeneous
means “having the same composition and
properties throughout.” A homogeneous
mixture of two or more substances that are
uniformly dispersed throughout the mixture
is a solution.
Gases and solids can also be solutions.
An alloy is a solution composed of two or
more metals.