DR. B.

HYPOTHALAMUS NWOGUEZE
B.Sc, SLT, M.Sc, MPH, Ph.D
Delta State University,
Abraka
 INTRODUCTION
The hypothalamus is a small but important area of the brain formed by various
nucleus and nervous fibers. It is situated just below thalamus in the ventral part
of diencephalon. It extends from optic chiasma to mamillary body.

The hypothalamus is a small, central region of the human brain formed by

nervous fibers and a conglomerate of nuclear bodies with various functions.
The hypothalamus is considered to be a link structure between the nervous
and the endocrine system, its main function being to maintain the
homeostasis of the body.

Through its neuronal connections, it is involved in many complex functions of the

organism such as vegetative system control, homeostasis of the organism,
thermoregulation, and also in adjusting the emotional behavior.
 CONT’D

Through its neuronal connections, it is involved in many complex functions of the

organism such as; vegetative system control, homeostasis of the organism,
thermoregulation, and also in adjusting the emotional behavior.

The hypothalamus is a high-level sensory integration and motor output area that
maintains homeostasis by controlling endocrine, autonomic, and somatic
behavior.

The hypothalamus is involved in different daily activities like eating or drinking,

in the control of the body’s temperature and energy maintenance, and in the
process of memorizing. It also modulates the endocrine system through its
connections with the pituitary gland.
 ANATOMY OF THE HYPOTHALAMUS
 The hypothalamus is located under the thalamus, lines the walls of 3rd
ventricle, above the pituitary. Divided into medial and lateral regions by
the fornix, bundles of fiber tracts that connect the hippocampus to the
mamillary bodies.
 It is separated by the hypothalamic sulcus, and extends anteroposteriorly
from the interventricular foramen, up to the level of Sylvius cerebral
aqueduct.
 The hypothalamus is limited anteriorly by the lamina terminalis, a gray
matter layer of triangular aspect extended above the chiasma optique, in
between the two anterior horns of the fornix

 Posteriorly, the hypothalamus extends up to the periaqueductal gray

substance and the tegmentum of the superior part of the brainstem.
 CONT’D
 The superior wall of the hypothalamic region participates in the formation
of the inferolateral wall of the third ventricle of the brain.

 The hypothalamus is limited laterally by the optic tracts in their direction

toward the lateral geniculate bodies, an important relay of the optical
pathway.

 The paraventricular nucleus is of particular importance, as it controls both

endocrine and autonomic processes.
 EMBRYOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT
At the end of the fourth week of embryological development, the neural tube
is organized in primary vesicles: the forebrain vesicle or prosencephalon, the
midbrain vesicle or mesencephalon, and the hindbrain vesicle, also called
rhombencephalon.

Prosencephalon further divides into two secondary vesicles, the

telencephalon that will form the cerebral hemispheres and the diencephalon
which gives rise to the diencephalon. Mesencephalon forms the midbrain,
structure involved in the processes of vision and hearing.

The hindbrain vesicle or rhombencephalon divides in metencephalon, which

further forms the pons and the cerebellum and the myelencephalon that
forms the medulla.
 BLOOD SUPPLY AND LYMPHATICS
The hypothalamus is supplied by the circle of Willis, which surrounds it inferiorly, the anteromedial
branches of the anterior cerebral artery, the posteromedial branches of the posterior
communicating artery, and the thalamoperforating branches of the posterior cerebral artery.

Venous drainage is largely via the circle of intercavernous sinuses. The hypothalamo-
neurohypophysial portal system is a capillary plexus that transmits the releasing hormones from
the arcuate nucleus of the hypothalamus to the anterior pituitary.

Astroglia podocytes form the blood-brain barrier by wrapping podocytes around capillaries. These
cells protect the brain from toxins in the blood and facilitate nutrient transport to the neurons.
Astroglia also forms a system of microscopic perivascular channels permeating the brain that
transmit cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)-like lymphatic vessels. The system enables CSF to clear metabolic
waste and distribute glucose, amino acids, lipids, and neurotransmitters. This system is most active
during sleep, contributing to its restoration function.

Arterial pulsation drives glymphatic flow, suggesting that exercise may also enhance it. Aging, brain
trauma, and ischemia decrease that CSF flow. Also, larger lymphatic vessels in the meninges help
absorb interstitial fluid into the dural venous sinuses.
 CONNECTIONS OF THE HYPOTHALAMUS
The connections of the hypothalamus are afferent and efferent.
1. AFFERENT CONNECTIONS
• Medial forebrain bundle: From rhinencephalon (limbic cortex) to preoptic nucleus, lateral
nucleus and mamillary body
• Fornix: From hippocampus to mamillary body
• Stria terminalis: From amygdaloid to preoptic nucleus
• Corticohypothalamic fibers: From prefrontal area (8) and precentral area (6) of cerebral
cortex to the supraoptic and paraventricular nuclei of hypothalamus
• Pallidohypothalamic fibers: From globus pallidus to diffused areas of hypothalamus
• Thalamohypothalamic fibers: From dorsomedial and midline nuclei of thalamus to diffused
areas of hypothalamus
• Reticulohypothalamic fibers: From reticular formation of brainstem to diffused areas of
hypothalamus
• Retinohypothalamic fibers: Fibers from retina to supraoptic, suprachiasmatic and
ventromedial nuclei of hypothalamus
 CONT’D
2. EFFERENT CONNECTIONS
Mamillothalamic tract: From mamillary body to anterior thalamic nuclei

Mamillotegmental tract: From mamillary body to the tegmental nuclei of midbrain

Periventricular fibers: Fibers from posterior, supraoptic and tuberal nuclei of

hypothalamus passes through periventricular gray matter to reach the reticular
formation in brainstem and spinal cord, dorsomedial nucleus of thalamus and the
frontal lobe of cerebral cortex

Hypothalamohypophyseal tract: From supraoptic and paraventricular nuclei of

hypothalamus to posterior pituitary.
 NUCLEI OF HYPOTHALAMUS
The hypothalamus is a bilateral collection of nuclei divided into three groups:

Fig 1. Nuclei of hypothalamus

Fig 2. Schematic representation of hypothalamic nuclei (sagittal section).
1. Anterior or preoptic group
Preoptic, anterior, and posterior nuclei: regulate body temperature by decreasing the sympathetic
tone of skeletal muscle, increasing the sympathetic tone to the skin, dilating capillaries, and
improving heat exchange with the exterior, and regulation of blood pressure [Posterior and lateral
nuclei has pressor effect while Preoptic area has depressor effect]

Paraventricular nucleus: Secretion of posterior pituitary hormones [Oxytocin- controls uterine

contraction during labor and milk let down in breastfeeding]. It also Control of adrenal cortex
through the action of Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH)

Supraoptic nucleus: Secretion of posterior pituitary hormones [Antidiuretic hormone- increases the
translocation of aquaporin to the apical membrane in the renal distal convoluted tubules,
increasing water reabsorption/retention during dehydration]

Suprachiasmatic nucleus: regulates hormone secretion and behavior diurnally according to light
input through the eyes [plays significant role in rhythmic changes such as; -circadian rhythm]
 CONT’D
2. Middle or tuberal group
Dorsomedial nucleus: Control of adrenal medulla by the action of catecholamines during emotion

Ventromedial nucleus: regulates feeding behavior [Satiety center] and Regulation of behavior and
emotion [Reward center]

Lateral nucleus: Regulation of hunger and water intake [Feeding and thirst center]

Arcuate (tuberal) nucleus: releases hormones secreted by axon terminals into the
hypothalamohypophysial venous portal system to control anterior pituitary hormone release

3. Posterior or mamillary group.

Posterior nucleus: Regulation of behavior and emotion [Punishment center]
Posterior hypothalamus nucleus: involved in autonomic responses such as; regulation of response
to smell

Mamillary body: Regulation of sleep and wakefulness and contributes to the limbic system as part
of the Papez circuit. It is also involved in memory formation and controls exploratory behavior.
 SECRETIONS OF THE HYPOTHALAMUS
ANTERIOR SECRETIONS: Hypothalamus controls the secretions of anterior pituitary gland by
secreting releasing hormones and inhibitory hormones. It secretes seven hormones.
i. Growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH)
ii. Growth hormone-releasing polypeptide (GHRP)
iii. Growth hormone-inhibiting hormone (GHIH) or
somatostatin
iv. Thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH)
v. Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH)
vi. Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH)
vii. Prolactin-inhibiting hormone (PIH).
The above hormones are secreted by discrete areas of hypothalamus and transported to
anterior pituitary by the hypothalamohypophyseal portal blood vessels.

POSTERIOR SECRETIONS: Hypothalamus is the site of secretion for the posterior pituitary
hormones. Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) and oxytocin are secreted by supraoptic and
paraventricular nuclei. These two hormones are transported by means of axonic or
axoplasmic flow through the fibers of hypothalamohypophyseal tracts to posterior pituitary.
 PHYSIOLOGY OF HYPOTHALAMUS
1. HOMEOSTATIC PROCESSES [SERVOCONTROL SYSTEMS]: Three main mechanisms in the
hypothalamus make its function analogous to servo-control systems
– Receives sensory information from external body
– Compares sensory information with biological set points.
– Adjusts an array of autonomic, endocrine and behavioral responses aimed at maintaining
homeostasis

2. THERMOREGULATION: Thermoregulation is the process that allows maintenance of the

body’s temperature within normal ranges. In case of high body temperature, the
hypothalamus responds through thermoregulatory heat loss behavior (either sweating or
vasodilatation). If the body needs to be warm up, hypothalamus can determine heat
production behavior (vasoconstriction, thermogenesis—heat production from muscles, brain
or other organs, including the thyroid gland). To regulate temperature, integration of
autonomic, endocrine, and skelatomotor systems must occur. Long-term exposure to cold
can lead to increased hypothalamic secretion of thyrotropin-releasing hormone. This results
in increased release of thyroxine, which in turns increases body heat by increasing tissue
metabolism.
 CONT’D
3. REGULATION OF BODY WATER CONTENT: Water control in the living organism is assured
by the hypothalamus through the antidiuretic hormone (ADH) secretion. In cases of blood
volume loss and dehydration, the ADH hormone is secreted from the supraoptic nucleus–
that have osmoreceptor cells–and released in the circulation. The peptide is directed toward
the specific receptor from kidneys and decreases the urine production with subsequent water
retention in the organism. Hypothalamus regulates water content of the body by
two mechanisms:
i. Thirst mechanism
ii. Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) mechanism.

4. THE CIRCADIAN RHYTHM: The photosensible suprachiasmatic nucleus is involved, along

with is connections with the pituitary gland, in the circadian rhythm. The suprachiasmatic
nucleus receives electro-chemical information from the stimulated retina. The circadian
rhythm represents the endogenous clock of an organism that is involved in the well-being of
the body due to keeping within normal limits the major functions. Despite its reduced size,
the hypothalamus represents an important, integrative region of the brain with complex
functions and multiple connections with essential cerebral structures.
 CONT’D
5. ENDOCRINE CONTROL: The endocrine control is realized through the pituitary gland or
the hypophysis situated below the tuberal region of the hypothalamus. The hypothalamus is
connected with the posterior lobe of the gland through the hypothalamo-hypophyseal tract.
Along these fibers, the AHD and oxytocin hormones are transported into the
neurohypophysis where they are stocked in vesicles. Hormones secretion in the body is
regulated by the hypothalamus through the releasing and inhibitor factors: thyrotropin-
releasing, gonadotropin-releasing, corticotrophin-releasing, somatostatin, and dopamine.
These hormones are involved in the process of growth, in reproduction, metabolism of the
body, and also can assure the homeostasis of the body

6. REPRODUCTION: The reproduction function of an organism is assured by the

hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis. The GnRH secreted by the hypothalamus stimulates the
production of luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) in the anterior
subdivision of the pituitary gland. Action of these two hormones on the gonads determines
the estrogen and testosterone production. Behavior in males and females is influenced as
well by the sex steroids. The neurons in the preoptic are involved in the male sexual behavior
while the ones from the tuberal regional exert their properties in females
 CONT’D
7. CENTER FOR AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM: The hypothalamus regulates both
sympathetic and parasympathetic systems. The anterior region of the thalamus has an
excitatory effect over the sympathetic system while the posterior and lateral ones have an
excitatory effect over the parasympathetic system. Direct control of autonomic
preganglionic neurons arises from the hypothalamus, the parabrachial nucleus, the nucleus
of the solitary tract, and neurons in the ventrolateral medulla. Indirect control of autonomic
responses originates from the cortex, amygdala , and the periqueductal gray matter

8. REGULATION OF BLOOD PRESSURE AND HEART RATE: Hypothalamus regulates the blood
pressure by acting on the vasomotor center. Stimulation of posterior and lateral
hypothalamic nuclei increases arterial blood pressure and stimulation of preoptic area
decreases the blood pressure. The hypothalamus equally regulates heart rate through
vasomotor center in the medulla oblongata. Stimulation of posterior and lateral nuclei of
hypothalamus increases the heart rate. Stimulation of preoptic and anterior nuclei decreases
the heart rate
 CONT’D
9. REGULATION OF FOOD INTAKE: Under normal physiological conditions, appetite and food
intake are well balanced and continues in a
cyclic manner. The hypothalamus controls appetite and food intake through the
ventromedial, dorsomedial, paraventricular, and lateral hypothalamus nucleus. The
ventromedial nucleus is referred to as the appetite-suppressing or anorexigenic center.
Destruction of this nucleus leads to hyperpolyphagia, obesity, and to an aggressive behavior.
Contrary, the appetite-increasing or orexigenic center is considered to be the lateral
hypothalamic nucleus that can lead to aphagia and cashexy in case of its destruction and to
hyperphagia or polyphagia in case of its stimulation. Appetite control is modulated by the
leptin hormone released by the fatty cells that binds to specific hypothalamic receptors.
Feeding center and satiety center of hypothalamus are responsible for the regulation of
appetite and food intake. These centers are regulated by the following mechanisms:
i. Glucostatic mechanism
ii. Lipostatic mechanism
iii. Peptide mechanism
iv. Hormonal mechanism
v. Thermostatic mechanism.
 CONT’D
10. REGULATION OF SLEEP AND WAKEFULNESS: Mamillary body in the posterior
hypothalamus is considered as the wakefulness center. Stimulation of mamillary body
causes wakefulness and its lesion leads to sleep. Stimulation of anterior hypothalamus also
leads to sleep.

11: SEXUAL FUNCTION: The hypothalamus plays an important role in maintaining the sexual
functions, especially in females. A decorticate female animal will have regular estrous cycle,
provided the hypothalamus is intact. In human beings also, hypothalamus regulates the
sexual functions by secreting gonadotropin releasing hormones. Arcuate and posterior
hypothalamic nuclei are involved in the regulation of sexual functions.

12. ROLE IN RESPONSE TO SMELL: Posterior hypothalamus along with other structures like
hippocampus and brainstem nuclei are responsible for the autonomic responses of body to
olfactory stimuli. The responses include feeding activities and emotional responses like fear,
excitement and pleasure.
 CONT’D
13. CONTROL OF ADRENAL GLAND SECRETIONS: Anterior pituitary regulates adrenal cortex
by secreting adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH). ACTH secretion is in turn regulated by
corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH), which is secreted by the paraventricular nucleus of
hypothalamus. Whereas, Dorsomedial and posterior hypothamic nuclei are excited by
emotional stimuli. These hypothalamic nuclei, in turn, send impulses to adrenal medulla
through sympathetic fibers and cause release of catecholamines, which are essential to cope
up with emotional stress

14. OXYTOCIN RELEASE AND LACTATION: Supraoptic and paraventricular nuclei contain
magnocellular neurons that secrete oxytocin into the general circulation in the posterior
pituitary. When a baby sucks on a mother’s nipples, mechanoreceptors are stimulated.
These receptors activate neurons that project to the magnocellular hypothalamic neurons,
causing those cells to fire brief bursts, releasing oxytocin. Oxytocin, in turn, increases
contraction of myoepithelial cells in the mamillary glands, leading to milk ejection.
 APPLIED PHYSIOLOGY

The lesion of hypothalamus occurs due to tumors, encephalitis and ischemia. Such condition
results in:
1. Disturbances in carbohydrate and fat metabolisms, when lateral, arcuate and
ventromedial nuclei are involved in lesion

2. Disturbance in sleep due to lesion in mamillary body and anterior hypothalamus

3. Disturbance in sympathetic or parasympathetic function occurs due to lesion in posterior,

lateral and anterior nuclei

4. Emotional manifestations, leading to sham rage due to lesion in ventromedial and

posterolateral parts

5. Disturbance in sexual functions due to the lesion in midhypothalamus.

 CLINICAL MANIFESTATIONS
Some clinical manifestations include:

1. Diabetes insipidus

2. Dystrophia adiposogenitalis

3. Kallmann syndrome

4. Laurence-Moon-Biedl syndrome

5. Narcolepsy

6. Cataplexy.
THANK YOU