SAINTGITS

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
(AUTONOMOUS)

ADVANCED MANUFACTURING
ENGINEERING

Dr Tijo D
Department of Mechanical Engineering
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 SAINTGITS
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING Course Outcomes
(AUTONOMOUS)

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 SAINTGITS
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
(AUTONOMOUS)

Module 1

Chapter 1

MICRO AND NANO MACHINING AND

POWDER METALLURGY

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 SAINTGITS
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING Syllabus
(AUTONOMOUS)

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 SAINTGITS
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
(AUTONOMOUS)

Peer group discussion :

Compare traditional, non-traditional machining with
example
Compare micro & nano machining process with example

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 SAINTGITS
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING Traditional and Non-traditional machining
(AUTONOMOUS)
Traditional Machining Non Traditional Machining
Physical contact between tool and No physical contact
workpiece material

Tool should be harder than work material No tool or if tool is use no need to be
harder than workpiece material

Mechanism of material removal is by Mechanism of material removal vary

shearing based on energy used

Formation of chip is in macroscopic level Formation of chip is in microscopic

level

Machining of titanium, hard ceramics and Hard materials can be machined

other hard material are not possible

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Task Work

• Presentation in Class

Micro and Nano Machining

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 SAINTGITS
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
(AUTONOMOUS)
Micro and Nano Machining
Micro Machining Nano Machining
Micro-machining is the most basic Nano machining/manufacturing is
technology for the production of such both the production of nanoscaled
miniature parts and components. materials, which can be powders or
fluids,
Micro machining is defined as the ability
to produce features with the dimensions The manufacturing of parts "bottom
from 1 micro-m to 999 micro-m or when up" from nanoscaled materials or "top
the volume of the material removed is at down" in smallest steps for high
the micro level. precision,

Eg: Micro drilling, micro milling Used in several technologies such as

laser ablation, etching and others.

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 POWDER METALLURGY

The process of making objects by the heat treatment of

compressed metallic powders

Process involves
• Preparation of metallic powders
• The subsequent welding of these powders in to solid form of the required shape

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 • Powder metallurgy (PM) is a metal working process for forming precision
metal components from metal powders.
• The metal powder is first pressed into product shape at room temperature.
• This is followed by heating (sintering) that causes the powder particles to fuse
together without melting.
• Strength and other properties are imparted to the components by sintering
operations.
• The most commonly used metals in P/M are iron, copper, aluminium, tin,
nickel, titanium and refractory metals

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Applications

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 Powder

Planetary Ball milling setup

Reference : Satya et al. (2017)

Die and punch for compaction

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 Powder compaction press Sintering Furnace

[Link]
[Link]
Reference : Satya et al. (2017)

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OPERATIONS / STEPS INVOLVED IN P/M

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OPERATIONS / STEPS INVOLVED IN P/M

Preparation of powders of the desired composition

Blending and mixing of powders

Pressing or Compacting of powders.

Sintering of the compacted powders

Finishing operations
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The effects of using fine powders and coarse powders
respectively in making P/M parts

Your Opinions

Peer group discussion :

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 Preparation of metal powders

A
ATOMIZATION
M ELECTROLYSIS

C CRUSHING AND MILLING

REDUCTION

CARBONYLS (THERMAL DEPOSITION)

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 1.
1. Gas atomization
Atomization (argon, nitrogen and helium gas jets )
2. Water atomization
(High pressure water jets are used )
3. Vacuum atomization
• (exposed into vacuum,
• the gas coming from metal solution
expands,
• causing atomization of the metal stream)
4. Centrifugal atomization (disk or cup)
• Centrifugal force can be used to break
• molten metal is disintegrated into fine
droplets as it falls on the rotating disc

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 • It is a process molten metal is disintegrated into fine metal particles.
• In this method the molten metal stream is subjecting to the impact
of high energy jets of gas or liquid
• Gas or liquid break up metal stream into small droplets and rapidly
frozen before the drops come into contact with each other.
• Air, nitrogen and argon are commonly used gases, and water is the
liquid most widely used.
• It is the dominant method for producing metal powders from
aluminium, brass, iron, alloy steel, super-alloy, titanium alloy and
other alloys etc.

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 [Link]
• To produce iron, impure steel acts as anodes in tanks containing
electrolyte.
• Sheets of stainless steel are placed in the tank acted as cathode.
• When DC current is passed through an electrolyte, pure iron gets
deposited on cathode.
• The cathode plates are then removed and the electrolytic iron is
stripped from them.
• Additional crushing and milling is necessary.
• Used for making copper, iron, silver and tantalum powders.
• Electrolytic powders are of high purity, soft spongy dendrite
structure.
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 Advantages of electrolysis
1. High degree of purity
2. Uniformity in characteristics
3. Excellent compacting and
sintering property (high
quality product)

Disadvantages
1. Low production rate

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 [Link] and Milling
• It is mechanical method of powder
preparation involving breaking solid
particles in pulverizing mills (ball,
vibratory, hummer).
• This method is generally applied for the
preparation of powders of brittle
materials.
• Metal particles is mixed with ball mills and
rotated or send through the rolling mill to
pulverize the metal to form powder.
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 Crushing

Milling [Link]

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 [Link]
• Pure metal is obtained by reducing its oxide
with a suitable reducing gas at an elevated
temperature below the melting point.
• Selected ore is crushed, mixed with Fe3O4 + 4CO +(heat) → 3Fe +
reducing gas or solid (carbon monoxide, 4CO2
hydrogen etc)
2CuO2 + 4H2(heat) → 2Cu +
• Passed through a continuous furnace
4H2O
where reaction takes place
• Leaving a cake of sponge iron which is then
further treated by crushing.
• Cheap process and large amount of powder
can be made

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 [Link] Process

• Carbonyl process is used to produce powders of high purity from nickel

and iron etc.
• Metal carbonyls are formed by letting impure or ore of iron or nickel
react with carbon monoxide.
• Reaction products is decomposed to iron and nickel (pure powder form)
• The impure nickel reacts with carbon monoxide at 50–60 °C to form the
nickel carbonyl gas, leaving the impurities as solids
Ni(s) + 4 CO (g) → Ni (CO)4(g) (Formation of carbonyl)
• The mixture of nickel carbonyl is heated to 220–250 °C, resulting in
decomposition back to nickel and carbon monoxide:
Ni (CO) 4(g) → Ni(s) + 4 CO (g) (Decomposition of carbonyl)
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 Metal powder characteristics
[Link] shape, size and size
distribution
[Link] and structural
characteristics
[Link] Characteristics
[Link] area
[Link] condition
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 1. Particle shape, size and size distribution

• The most important method for measuring is to pass the

powder through screen (sieves) having definite number of
meshes or by microscopic measurements
• Their size is commonly reported by screening out the coarse,
then the medium and then the fine particles
• Shape may be spherical, nodular, irregular, angular and
dendritic
• Particle size or fineness is expressed by the diameter of the
spheriodal particles

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 2. Physical and structural characteristics
Green strength:
• Green strength is used to describe the strength of the pressed powder after compacting,
but before sintering.
• The green strength increases with the increase of compaction pressure and apparent
density.

Apparent Density:
• Density of loose powder after filling the volume.
• And Green density is the density of powder after the compacting process.

Compressibility and compression ratio:

• Compressibility is the measure of the powder’s ability to deform under applied pressure.
• Compression ratio defined as the ratio of the volume of the powder
poured into the die to the volume of the pressed
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1
 3. Flow Characteristics
• It is the ability of powder to flow readily to fill the mold cavity.
• It is a very important property, since the minimum time of filling
improves the production rates and economy
• Very fine particles will flow just like a liquid.
• When such powder is pressed in a die, it will flow into complex
die cavities.
Flow rate or flow ability depends on the:
 Shape of the powder particle
 Size of the powder particle
 Size distribution of the powder particle
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 4. Surface Area
• The specific surface area is defined as the total surface area
per unit weight.
• It depends on size, shape, density and surface conditions of the
particle.
• It indicates the area available for bonding and also the area on
which the adsorbed films or contaminates may be present.

• High specific surface not only results in high sintering rate but also
causes entrapment of air and thereby causing the compact to crack
either before or during sintering.

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 5. Surface Condition

• Oxides may present in powder and they greatly weaken the

final product produced by cold pressing.
• Chemical characteristics are depending on
the purity, amount of oxides permitted and
the percentage of other elements allowed.
• Clean surface of particles is essential for attaining desired
mechanical properties

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 MIXING AND BLENDING OF METAL POWDERS
Blending:
• It is the process of mixing powder of the same chemical
composition but different sizes.
• Different particle sizes are often blended to reduce porosity.
• Blending imparts uniformity in the shapes of
the powder particles,
• Lubricants can be added during the blending
process to improve the flow characteristics
of the powder particles reducing friction
between particles and dies,
• [Link]
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 Mixing:
• Process of combining powders of different chemistries (nickel and iron,
zirconium alumina, wax, tungsten carbide) to improve the properties
• It depends on the
• Powder material,
• Particle size,
• Particle shape,
• Surface conditions
• Environment conditions such as temperature and pressure.
• Mixing facilitates mixing of different powder particles to impart wide
ranging physical and mechanical properties,
• Binders can be added to the mixture of the powder particles to
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 COMPACTING

Blended powders are pressed in dies under high

pressure to form them into the required shape

The work part after compaction is called a green

compact or simply a green, the word green meaning
not yet fully processed.

The compaction is done to bring the finely divided

particles of powder into close proximity while
imparting the desired part configuration

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 Compaction Methods

Cold pressure shaping technique.

• Die compaction
• Cold Isostatic pressing
• Powder rolling Centrifugal compaction
Pressure shaping technique with heat
• Hot pressing
• Hot working (forging, hot extrusion, hot rolling) Hot
Isostatic pressing
Pressure less shaping technique.
• Loose sintering
•Slip casting Slurry casting
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 I. DIE PRESSING

• The metal powders are placed in a die

cavity and compressed to form a
component shaped to the contour of
the die.
• The pressure used for producing green
compact of the component varies
from 80 MPa to 1400 MPa,
• Pressure depends on material and the
characteristics of the powder used.

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 a. Single Action Die Compaction

• Used to manufacture flat, thin parts

such as washers, discs, thin rings etc.
• The die and the lower punch are
stationary
• The bottom punch acts as a support at
the start of the operation and then as
ejector at the end of the compacting
stroke
• The upper punch enters the die cavity
to compress the powder

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 b. Double Action Die Compaction

• The powder is compacted

simultaneously from opposite directions
by both the top and bottom punches
• The die table remains stationary and the
upward movement of the lower punch
carries out the ejection.
• This technique is used for the
production of thin walled bushings and
cylindrical bearings
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 II. COLD ISOSTATIC PRESSING (CIP)
• Uses an elastic deformable mould (reusable rubber or single use
metal)
• Contains the metal powder and an omni directional pressure is
applied by means of a pressure medium inside a pressure vessel
• If the medium is a gas, the method is called iso-static pressing and
when the medium is liquid(water) it is called hydrostatic pressing
• Flexible mould subjected to uniform pressure (65-650 MPa)

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 Advantages of cold Iso-Static Pressing (comparing die compacting)

1. Uniform and high density compact

2. Higher dimensional accuracy- near net shaped product
3. Better mechanical properties like ductility, strength, hardness etc
4. More complex geometrical shapes can be made
5. Higher green strength
6. Absence of lubricant
7. Reduced friction

Disadvantages

1. Higher equipment cost

2. Low productivity
3. Dimensional control is less
4. Flexible mould life is less
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 III. HOT ISOSTATIC PRESSING [HIP]

• High temperature and pressure is applied

simultaneously (3-dimensions) to produce a dense
component.
• The pressure is uniform in all directions (isostatic).
• At high temperatures, the hermetic container deforms
plastically and the powder is compacted within it
under pressure.
• No further sintering process is needed here as the
combination of heat and pressure during the process is
done.
• Metal or glass is used for making the hermetic
container.
• The pressurizing medium is a gas (inert argon/helium)
with a pressure 100 to 200 MPa and temperatures to
2200°C.
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 • Hot iso-static pressing (HIP) is combining the compaction and sintering processes in PM

production process. So it eliminates separate sintering.

• Advantages
• 1. Little or no porosity
• 2. Better surface finish
• 3. Neat net shape product
• 4. Improvements in mechanical and physical properties, fatigue, surface finish, reliability
• 5. Fast delivery
• 6. More uniform strength
• 7. Less pressure requirement

• Disadvantages
• 1. Very expensive
• 2. Protective environment is needed
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 IV. POWDER ROLLING OR ROLL COMPACTING

• The rolls are set directly above each other so that the strip emerges
horizontally
• Or they are set side by side so that the strip emerges vertically
downward.
• [Link]

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 SINTERING

• Sintering is a heat treatment process applied to a green compact

(product after the compacting)
• impart strength in a controlled atmosphere (reducing
atmosphere which protects oxidation of metal powders).
• Sintering increases the bond between the particles and therefore
strengthens the powder metal compact.
• The temperature used for sintering is below the (0.6 to
0.8 times) melting point of powder material.
• The atoms in the materials diffuse across the boundaries of the
particles, fusing the particles together and creating one solid piece .
• Sintering reduces the porosity and enhances the properties
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 Mechanism of sintering

• High temperatures promote diffusion and possibility of solid

rearrangement during the sintering process.
• The main driving force during the sintering process is the
reduction of energy due to the reduced surface area.
• The porosity of the material decreases due to the bridge
formation among particles given by the minimization of the
internal energy of the system.
• Alloying of different metal powder occurs
• Inividual particle structure disappears an forms a mass
• Important sintering mechanism is diffusion
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 Stages of Sintering
This process is carried out a constant temperature and time is varied to
obtain the desirable results.
Phases of sintering are:
• Local bonding: Particles stick together and neck formation
• Initial stage: Neck growth
• Final stage: Pores are round up then finally closed

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 • The time, temperature and the furnace atmosphere are
the three critical factors that control the sintering
process.
• Sintering process enhances the density of the final part
by filling up the incipient holes and increasing the area of
contact among the powder particles in the compact

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 Types of sintering

[Link] Phase 11. Liquid Phase

• Solid state sintering occurs when the powder compact is densified wholly in a solid
state at the sintering temperature.

• No liquid is present and atomic diffusion in the solid state produces joining of the
particles and reduction of porosity.

• All densification is achieved through changes in particle shape, without particle

rearrangement.

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 Liquid phase sintering

• Liquid phase sintering is the process of

adding an additive to the powder which
will melt before the matrix phase.
• For materials which are hard
to sinter, liquid phase
sintering is commonly used.
• Materials for which liquid phase sintering
is common are Si3N4, WC, SiC, and more.
• Some liquid phase present in the powder
compact will enhance sintering process.
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 Driving forces of sintering
• The main driving force during the sintering process is the
reduction of energy due to the reduced surface area.
• Powders with a smaller surface area will have a higher driving
force towards bonding and to reduce its potential energy.
• The porosity of the material decreases due to the bridge
formation among particles given by the minimization of the
internal energy of the system.

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 SECONDARY / FINISHING OPERATIONS

INFILTRATION

IMPREGNATION

PHOSPHATE COATING

STEAM TREATMENT

CARBURIZING

CARBONITRIDING

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 1. Infiltration

• The pores of sintered part are filled with some low melting point
metal with the result that part's hardness and tensile strength are
improved.
• The molten metal infiltrates the pores by capillary action.
• When the process is complete, the component has greater density,
hardness, and strength.
• Copper is often used for the infiltration of iron – base PM
components.
• Lead has also been used for infiltration of components like bushes
for which lower frictional characteristics are needed.
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 2. Impregnation

• The inherent porosity of PM parts is utilized by

impregnating them with a fluid like oil or grease.
• A typical application of this operation is for sintered bearings
and bushings –that are internally lubricated with upto 30%
oil by volume by simply immersing them in heated oil.
• Such components have a continuous supply of lubricant by
capillary action, during their use.
• Universal joint is typical grease impregnated PM part.

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 Need, Advantages and Applications of PM
• The parts produced by PM have adequate physical and
mechanical properties
• Meeting the functional performance characteristics.
• The cost of producing a component by PM is generally lower
than the cost of casting
• Use to produce:
Self – lubricating bearings, porous metal filters and a wide
range of engineered shapes, such as gears, cams, brackets,
sprockets, etc.
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 PEER GROUP DISSCUSION

Form Group and discuss

• Advantages of PM
• Dis-advantages of PM

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 Advantages of PM

1. Scrap losses are reduced and often results in lower unit cost
2. Metals and alloys can be mixed together in any proportion
3. Metals and non metals can be mixed together in any proportion.
4. There is better control of composition and structure
5. Machining operations are eliminated.
6. Such parts which have special properties can be produced which otherwise
cannot be produced.
7. Super hard cutting bits, which can never be manufactured by any other
methods are made by powder metallurgy, eg. Sintered carbides, Cemented
carbide
8. Suitable for mass production.
9. loss of material is lesser.
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 Disadvantages of PM
• Dies and equipment costs are high.
• Metal powders are expensive
• Dies be capable of withstanding high temperature and pressure.
• Method is uneconomical, particularly for small runs.
• Shapes that may be made by this method are limited.
• The physical properties obtained for the products can be lower
• Part size and weight are restricted
• Certain thermal difficulties occur. (low melting powders like tin, zinc and
cadmium)
• Difficult to keep close tolerances

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 TEST 1
Group 1

• A produced PM part is very hard to sinter. What is your suggestions about

its sintering?

• Why is pore size important in the manufacture of self lubricating bearing?

How may pore size be controlled?

• What are the main applications of powder metallurgy in the manufacture

of an automobile vehicle

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 Group 2
• Suggest a sintering technique that uses the liquid phase
acceleration to create final product

• Explain the effects of using fine powders and coarse powders

respectively in making P/M parts

• Describe the relative advantages of HIP over CIP with the help of
suitable sketches.

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Group 3
• Should green compacts be brought up to the sintering temperature
slowly or rapidly? Explain

• Which of the following can be added to Fe powder to improve the

compressive strength of bearing: Lead, Copper, Sulphar an Bismuth.
Detail it

• Explain the effects of using fine powders and coarse powders respectively
in making P/M parts

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 Theory of metal cutting

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 INTRODUCTION TO METAL CUTTING
• Machining is a manufacturing process in which jobs are produced to the desired
shape, dimensions and surface finish by gradually removing the excess material
from the preformed blank in the form of chips with the help of cutting tools moved
past the work surface.
• [Link]

• A metal cutting process involves workpiece, tool (including holding devices),

chips and cutting fluid
• For removing the metal, a wedge shaped tool is considered stationary and the
work piece moves to the right. The area of metal in front of tool gets
compressed causing high temperature shear.
• The stress in workpiece just ahead of the cutting tool reaches ultimate strength
and particles shears to form chip elements.

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 Metal Cutting Operation

Tool Nomenclature

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 CUTTING TOOL NOMENCLATURE

• To perform cutting operations satisfactorily the tool bit or tool

is provided with various angles known as basic tool angles and
compose what is often termed as tool geometry.

• Tool signature for a single point cutting tool is a sequence

of numbers listing the various angles in degrees and the nose
radius.

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 Cutting Edges

k Base
la n
End e F
Fl a n
k Sid

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 Attributes of Tool Nomenclature (Parts of Single Point
Cutting Tool)

Base
Flank

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 Standard Angles of Single Point Cutting Tool

Base
Flank

Single point cutting tool

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 Base
Flank

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 Standard Angles of Single Point Cutting Tool
Back rake angle
• The back rake angle is the angle between the face of the tool and a line parallel
to the base of the shank in a plane parallel to the side cutting edge.
Side rake angle
The side rake angle is the angle between the face of the tool and a line parallel to
the base and measured in a plane right angles to the base.

• The side rake angle and the back rake angle combine to form the effective rake
angle. This is also called true rake angle or resultant rake angle of the tool
• Positive rake or increased rake angle reduces compression, the forces, and the
friction, yielding a thinner, less deformed and cooler chip.
• To provide greater strength at the cutting edge and better heat conductivity,
zero or negative rake angles are employed

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 Relief or Clearance Angle
Relief angles are provided to minimize physical interference or rubbing contact with
machined surface and the work piece.
1. Side relief angle
2. End relief angle
End relief angle
• It is the angle between end flank surface and a line perpendicular to the shank of the
tool measured in a plane perpendicular to the base of the tool.
• The End relief angle prevents the end flank of the tool from rubbing against the work.
Side relief angle
• It is the angle between side flank surface and a line perpendicular to the shank of the
tool.
• The Side relief angle prevents the side flank of the tool from rubbing against the
work when longitudinal feed is given. Larger feed will require greater side relief
angle.
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 Side cutting edge angle :
It is the angle between the side cutting edge and axis of the
tool
End cutting edge angle:
It is the angle between the end cutting edge and axis of the tool
Lip angle or cutting angle
It is the angle between the face and end surface of the tool.
Nose radius
It is the radius of the curved surface joins the side cutting edge
& end cutting edge

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Tool signature

• It is the system of designating the principal angles of a

single point cutting tool.
• The signature is the sequence of numbers listing the
various angles, in degrees, and the size of the nose radius.
• There are several systems available like American standard
system (ASA), orthogonal rake system (ORS), Normal rake
system (NRS), and Maximum rake system (MRS).
• The system most commonly used is American Standard
Association.

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 American Standards Association (ASA) according to which the seven elements
comprising signature of a single point tool are always stated in the following order:

(i) Back rake angle

(ii) Side rake angle
(iii) End relief angle
(iv) Side relief angle
(v) End cutting edge angle
(vi) Side cutting edge angle, and
(vii) Nose radius.

For example a tool may designated in the following sequence: 8-14-6-6-6-15-1

Bake rake angle is 8, Side rake angle is 14, End relief angle is 6, Side relief angle is
6, End cutting Edge angle is 6, Side cutting Edge angle is 15, Nose radius is 1 mm .
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 METHODS OF METAL CUTTING PROCESSES

1. Orthogonal Cutting
[Link] 2. Oblique Cutting

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 • Orthogonal cutting process is one in which the cutting face of the tool is
90 degree to the line of action or path of the tool.
• In other words, the edge of tool is perpendicular to the cutting velocity

• Oblique cutting process is one in which the cutting face is inclined at an

angle less than 90 degrees to the path of the tool, the cutting action is
known as oblique

• [Link]

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 Differences between orthogonal and oblique cutting

Orthogonal Cutting Oblique Cutting

The cutting edge of the tool remains at 90 The cutting edge of the tool remains
degrees to the direction of feed (of the inclined at an acute angle in the direction
tool or the work) of feed.
The direction of chip flow is perpendicular Chip flows on the tool face by making an
to the cutting edge. angle
The cutting edge clears the width of the The cutting edge may or may not clear
work piece on either ends. the width of the workpiece.
Maximum chip thickness occurs at the Maximum chip thickness may not occur at
middle. middle.
Cutting force acts on smaller areas. So the Cutting force acts on larger area, So the
life of the tool is less. tool life is more

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 MECHANISM OF METAL REMOVAL PROCESSES
MECHANISM OF CHIP FORMATION

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• When the tool advances into the work piece, the metal in front of
the tool is severely stressed.
• The cutting tool produces internal shearing action in the metal.
• The metal below the cutting edge yields and flows plastically in the
form of chip.
• Compression of the metal under the tool takes place.
• When the ultimate stress of the metal is exceeded, separation of
metal takes place.
• The plastic flow takes place in a localized area called as shear zone.
The chip moves upward on the face of the tool.
• The plane along which the element shears, is called shear plane
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 Shear Zone
All the mechanical work done during metal cutting is converted into equivalent amount of
heat. The heat generated has two main sources

Zone 1 - Primary deformation zone: This is

where the primary plastic or shear
deformation takes place.

Zone 2- The secondary deformation zone:

This occurs at the chip- tool interface. Here
the secondary plastic deformation due to
friction between the heated chip and tool
takes place.

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Types of Chips

(i) Continuous Chip

(ii) Continuous chip with built up edges.
(iii) Discontinuous Chip

[Link]

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Continuous Chips
• During the cutting of ductile materials like low
carbon steel, copper, brass, aluminium alloys
etc., a continuous ribbon type chip is produced

• The conditions that favor the production of

continuous chips, high cutting speed, sharp
cutting edge, large rake angle in cutting tool
and fine feed, smooth tool face and efficient
lubricating system.

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Discontinuous chips
• These chips are produced when cutting more brittle
materials like bronze, hard brass and gray cast iron.
• Chips breaks into small segments , thus friction between
tool an chips reduces and results in better surface finish
• Easy to handle an dispose off
• Discontinuous chips are produced in ductile
materials under the conditions, low
cutting speed, small rake angle of tool
etc.
• If these chips are produced from brittle materials, then
the surface finish is fair, power consumption is low and
tool life is reasonable
• however with ductile materials the surface finish is poor
and tool wear is excessive
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 Continuous Chips with BUE
• When machining ductile materials due to conditions of high local
temperature and extreme pressure in the cutting zone and also high
friction in the tool chip interface

• There are possibilities of work material to weld to the cutting edge of

tool and thus forming built up edges. This weld metal is extremely hard
and brittle. This welding may affect the cutting action of tool.

• When this edge becomes large and unstable it is broken and part of it is
carried up the face of the tool along with chip while remaining is left in
the surface being machined

• Conditions favoring the formation of build up edge are

low cutting speed, low rake angle, high feed and large
depth of cut, ductile material, Cutting fluid absent or in
adequate
• formation can be avoided by the use of coolants and taking light cuts
at high speed
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 Chip Breakers
• [Link]
• [Link]
• During machining, long and continuous chip will affect machining. It
will spoil tool, work and machine.
• It will also be difficult to remove metal and also dangerous.
• The chip should be broken into small pieces for easy removal, safety
and to prevent damage to machine and work.
Types of Chip Breakers
1. Groove type
2. Step Type
3. Clamp Type
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Groove type chip breaker
• A small groove is provided behind the leading cutting edge of the tool
insert on the rake face . The geometry of groove determines the radius
of chip curvature
Step type chip breaker
• In this a step is ground on the face of the tool along the cutting edge.
Clamp type chip breaker
• In this a thin carbide plate or clamp is brazed or screwed on the face of
the tool.

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 Force Analysis in Orthogonal Cutting

Fc

Fd
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• Following are the forces developed
• Force (F) : It is the Frictional resistance of chip acting on tool.
• Force (N) : It is reaction provided by the tool.
• Force (Fs) : It is shear force on metal. Parallel to shear plane
• Force (Fn) : It is normal to shear plane and it is backing up force causing
compressive stress on the shear plane.
• Feed Force (Fd): It is vertical component of the cutting force, acting in the direction
of feed of the tool (perpendicular to direction of cutting).
• Main cutting force (Fc): It is the horizontal component of the cutting force acting in
horizontal direction/primary direction of cutting

• Two resultant forces

• Both R and R’ are equal in magnitude and opposite in direction and are
collinear since chip is in equilibrium.
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Free body diagram of
Resultant forces

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 Merchant Circle Diagram
• Merchant represented these forces in a circle called Merchant Circle Diagram,
a graphical representation of the forces acting on the workpiece during a
metal cutting operation.

• Or Merchant circle is a method which is used for calculating the various

forces involved in the cutting process.

• Following are the assumptions made in merchants to workout force relations

(i) Tool is perfectly sharp and there is no contact along the clearance
face.
(ii) The shear surface is a plane extending upward from the cutting edge.
(iii) The cutting edge is a straight line.
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(iv) The chip does not flow to either side.
(v) The depth of cut is constant.
(vi) Width of the tool is greater than that of work piece.
(vii) The work moves relative to tool with uniform velocity.
(viii) A continuous chip is produced with no built up edge.
(ix) Plain strain condition exists i.e width of chip remains equal
to width of the work piece.

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Expression for various Cutting forces and derivation
Relationship between cutting force and shear force

Condition for maximum cutting forces

Area of shear plane = b x l
b- with of shear plane
l= AC= length of shear plane
t = depth of cut

Area of chip = b x t = f x t
b- width of chip
F- feed
t- depth of cut
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Larger area, small angle, large cutting for

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DEVELOPMENT OF CUTTING TOOL MATERIALS
Type of cutting tool material to be used depends upon

(i) Physical and chemical properties of metal to be cut

(ii) Type of manufacturing process i.e. either Turning, Milling, Grinding etc.
(iii) Rate of production & volume of production.
(iv) Condition of the machine tool.
(v) Complexity of tool and material to be cut.

• The most important properties of tool material are hot hardness, wear
resistance and toughness
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 Task for the next day
• Explain the different cutting tool material

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The commonly used cutting tool materials are:

Carbon steel
• These are the oldest of the tool materials ; No sufficient hardness
and wear resistance
• Composition C 0.7 to 1%,Si 0.5%, Mn 0.5%
• Inexpensive, easily shaped, sharpened : Used in tools like-files,
core drills ,short reamers etc
• They can be worked upto 200 to 250 0C.
• Used for Cutting soft materials like Wood, Plastic, Aluminum,
Copper
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Medium Alloy Steels
• In medium alloy steels, alloying elements like Tungsten, Chromium,
Molybdenum are added to improve hardenability.
• The carbon content in these alloy steel is around 1.2 to 1.3%. Higher Carbon
content increases hardness and wear resistance.
• Tools of these material can work between 2500C to 3000C and speed is 20 to
40% more than carbon steels
High Speed Steels (HSS)
• Mostly used in industries.
• They can be used at higher cutting speed( 2 to 3 times higher than for C
• Steel) . So it is called HSS.
• Hot hardness value (9000C), Good wear resistance
• High
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toughness. Alloy
L E A R N ofWTungsten,
. G R O Chromium, Vanadium, Co and Mb
SAINTGITS College of Engineering
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1
Cemented Carbide Tools
• The main constituents of cemented carbide tools is tungsten carbide (WC).
• Tungsten carbide materials are produced by powder metallurgy by
pressing and bonding.
• High hardness, heat resistance, wear resistance, high hot hardness.
• These tools can be used upto 1000 0C.

Uses:
• Used to machine cast iron, non-ferrous and light metal and alloys, non-
metallic materials like rubber, glass, plastics, plastics carbon electrodes, in
machining unhardened carbon and alloy steels, heat resistance steels and
super alloys work pieces.
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Ceramic Tools

• Ceramic tools are called cemented oxides

• They have very high compressive strength. It is quite brittle.
• Low heat conductivity, so no coolant is required during machining.
• Have high strength and hot hardness upto 12000C.
• Have low coefficient of friction and hence low heat generated.
• Have 2 to 5 times more cutting speed than other tools.
• Ceramic cutting tools are constructed mainly from alumina (Al2O3) and
silicon nitride (SiN).
• Recent advances have also introduced the use of silicon carbide (SiC)
and ceramic matrix composites (CMCs)
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Diamond Cutting Tools
• Hardest , incompressible
• Readily conduct heat , Low coefficient of friction
• Cutting speed 50 times greater than HSS
• Temp Resistance up to 1650 ºC
• high wear resistance
• Used for machining non metals like rubber, ceramic, graphite and plastic.
• Used for machining precious metals like Platinum, Gold and Silver, Soft
metals like Copper, Brass, Zinc alloys.
Coated carbide tools
• Coated with layer of optimum thickness of Titanium carbide ,Titanium
carbonitride, and titanium nitride
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 Thermal aspects of machining –tool wear and wear mechanism

• During machining operation it

is subjected to cutting
forces, temperatures,
sliding action,
mechanical and thermal
shocks.

• Under these severe

conditions, the tools gradually
wear out and even fractures,
necessitating a tool change
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 According to the first law of
thermodynamics, when work is
transformed into heat,
2
the quantity of heat produced is
equivalent to the quantity of
1
work
3

• The shear zone, 1,where the primary plastic or shear deformation takes place
• The chip-tool interface, 2, where secondary plastic deformation due to friction between
the heated chip and tool takes place.
• The work- tool interface, 3, flanks where frictional rubbing occurs

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Tool wear causes the following effects

• The cutting forces increases.

• The dimensional accuracy of the work decreases.
• The surface roughness of work increases.
• Increase in the temperature between tool and work piece.
• The tool-work-machine starts vibrating.
• The work piece/tool may get damaged.
• Loss of production and increase in cost
• Formation of BUE

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Tool Wear
Mainly 4 types of wear
1. Flank Wear , 2. Crater Wear
3. Chipping off of the cutting edge
4. Rounding of the cutting edge

Flank Wear

• Wear occurred on the flanks of the cutting tool

• Flank wear is caused by the rubbing action of the machined surface
• Abrasion by hard particles and inclusions in the work piece.
• Shearing of the micro welds between tool and work material.
• Abrasion by fragments of built‐up‐edge ploughing against the clearance face of the tool.
• At low speed flank wear predominates
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Crater Wear
• Crater Wear occurs on the rake face of tool in the form of a pit called crater
• It is formed at a distance from the cutting edge.
• It is a temperature dependent phenomenon caused by diffusion, adhesion etc.
• For crater wear, temperature is main culprit and tool defuse into the chip
material & tool temperature is maximum at some distance from the tool tip.

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Chipping and rounding of cutting
edge
1) Tool material is too brittle
2) Weak design of tool, such as high
positive rake angle
3) As a result of crack that is
already in the tool

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 Wear Mechanisms

Abrasion wear:
• Occurs when hard constituents of one surface moves to the
other side of material
• Amount of wear depends on hardness of contacting surface.
• Constituents causing wear are harder than the matrix of the
cutting tool

Adhesion wear:
• occurs when two surfaces are brought into contact under
normal loads and form welded junctions
• When shear load is applied, this junction breaks
• Depends on characteristics of tool and work material
• Occurs at very low cutting speeds
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Diffusion wear:
• Atoms move from one lattice point to
Micro crack
another
• Caused due to increase in
temperature
• Occurs when localized temperature is Oxide layer

increased sufficiently (a) (b)

Chemical or oxidation wear

• The fresh metal will quickly react with
oxygen in air to form a fresh oxide
layer,
• which will then be scraped off again
by asperities in the following cycle

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 Economics of Machining - Machining Cost
Cost of machining involves the following cost
(i) Machining cost (cutting cost or machine/operating cost)
(ii) Tool cost (iii) Idle cost (or) non productive cost.
(iv) Tool Grinding Cost

Total cost per piece CTot = Cm + CI + CT + CG

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 Cutting Fluids

• Cutting is applied to a tool during a cutting operation to facilitate removal of chips

and heat
[Link]

Functions
(i) To cool the cutting tool and increase the tool life.
(ii) To cool the workpiece and helps in lubrication of machine.
(iii) To reduce the friction between the chip and the tool.
(iv) To flush away the chip to keep the cutting region free.
(v) To produce the machined surface free from corrosion.
(vi) Reduce the cutting forces and energy consumption.
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 Properties of Good Cutting fluid

(i) Good Lubricating Qualities

(ii) High heat absorbing capacity or cooling capacity
(iii) Rust resistance
(iv)It should not be harmful to worker or operator
(v) It should be non flammable
(vi) It should not produce smoke or foam easily
(vii) It should not produce bad smell
SELF LEARNING
(viii) It should be of low cost.

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 Types of Cutting Fluids

(i) Solid based cutting fluids

It may be included in the work material itself or applied on the chip tool interface with
some liquid mainly to facilitate machining by reducing friction.
Ex. graphite, molybdenum disulphide etc.

(ii) Straight cutting fluid: These are of three types

(ii) Mineral oils (ii) Fatty oils (iii) Combination of mineral and fatty oils.

(These oil have good lubricating properties but poor heat absorption quality and are
used for low cutting speeds)
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(iii) Oil with additives

• Mineral oil with additives such as sulphur or chlorine

• Addition of sulphur compounds reduces chances of chip welding on tool rake
face

(iv) Water Soluble Cutting Fluids

• These are also called water based cutting fluids.

• These comprise of mineral oils, fat mixtures and emulsifiers added to water.
• The oil is held in the form of microscopic droplets (colloidal) in water, which
assumes a white milky appearance.
• Because of water, these have very good cooling effects
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 Previous Questions
1. Draw three views of a single point cutting tool and mark
cutting angles used in tool signature.
2 a) With the help of a neat diagram explain the nomenclature of
a single point cutting tool.
b) Discuss about the basic mechanism of chip formation.
3 a) With a neat diagram discuss merchant force circle.
4) Advantages of Cutting Fluids

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