UNIT FOUR

POLITICS, ECONOMY & SOCIETY FROM LATE 13th TO THE

BEGINNING OF 16th C
 Topical presentation/outline/
 The “restoration" of the "Solomonic" Dynasty,
 Power struggle/succession problems/,
 Consolidation of the kingdom, Territorial expansion &
religious process
 Political & socio-economic Dynamics in Muslim
Sultanates
 Rivalry b/n Christian kingdom & Muslim Sultanates
 External Relation: Egypt & Europe
 4.1. The “Restoration” of the “Solomonic’’ Dynasty

 The rulers of “Solomonic” dynasty claimed that they were

descendants of the last king of Aksum & hence, they were
legitimate to take over state power from the “illegitimate” rulers
of the Zagwe dynasty.
 As the claim has no historical evidence, the name “Restoration”
is put in quotation mark.
 Similarly, the name “Solomonic” is placed in quotation marks
because the claim of descent from King Solomon of Israel is
legendary.
 Cont..,
 The claim has been elaborated in the Kibre Negest (“Glory
of Kings”) that associated Ethiopia with the Judeo-
Christian tradition.
 The Kibre Negest claims that Ethiopian ruling class
descended from the line of Menilek I, son of the Queen of
Sheba and King Solomon of Israel.
 As a result, Ethiopian monarchs from Yikuno Amlak to
Emperor Haile-Silassie I claimed descent from Menilek I.
 Cont..,
4.2. Power Struggle, Consolidation, Territorial Expansion
and Religious Processes
4.2.1. Succession Problem & Establishment of a ‘Royal
Prison’ of Amba Gishen
Following the end of the reign of Yikuno-Amlak in
1285, a political instability caused by constant power
struggles among his sons & grandsons for succession
occurred.
A letter written by Yegba-Tsion (r.1285-94) to the
Sultan of Egypt & Patriarch of Alexandria in 1290
reflected the existence of those struggles.
 Cont..,
 Succession problem partly resolved in 1300 during the reign of
Widim-Ra’ad (r. 1299-1314) ff establishment of a 'royal prison' at
Amba-Gishen located in present day southern Wollo where all
male members of royal family confined until one among them was
installed in power.
 Loyal soldiers to the reigning monarch guarded the royal prison.
 When the monarch died, court dignitaries would send an army to
the royal prison to escort the designated successor and put him on
the throne.
 This practice continued until Amba-Gishen was destroyed by Imam
Ahmad Ibrahim Al-Ghazi's force in 1540.
 4.2.2. Consolidation and Territorial Expansion of the Christian Kingdom

From 1270 until the establishment of Gondar in 1636, medieval

monarchs had no permanent capital.

 Initially, the center of the “restored” dynasty was in medieval

Amhara (today’s South Wollo) around Lake Haiq.

However, it gradually shifted southward to districts of Menz,

Tegulet, Bulga, & finally to the regions dominated by the great

height of the Yerer, Entoto, Menagesha, Wachacha, Furi & Zequalla

mountains.
 Cont..,
 Until the coming of Amde-Tsion (r.1314-44), the center and the
territorial limit of the Christian Kingdom was mainly in present
day Tigray, Lasta, medieval Amhara and Shewa.
 Amde-Tsion was the first "Solomonic" King, who embarked on a
policy of a wider and rapid territorial expansion.
 His main motives of expansion were economic & political i.e. to
control the trade routes and seize territories.
 Christian Kingdom controlled extensive territories during the
reign of Emperor Amde-Tsion.
 Cont..,
 In the process of consolidating his power, Amde-Tsion
subdued rebellions w/c threatened the unity of Christian
Kingdom.
 In the process, he expanded his territory into:
 Agaw (Awi) of Gojjam around 1323/4;
 Bizamo & Damot in 1316/7;
Bete-Israel (located b/n Dambiya & Tekeze River) around 1332;
and the Red Sea Coast.

 Amde-Tsion's army faced stiff resistance from among Ifat

and Shewa, which might have cooperated with the
rebellious army at Enderta, led by Yibeka-Igzi in 1320s.
 Cont..,
 In the southeast, Muslim sultanates paid tributes to the Christian
Kingdom.
 In the south, Gurage speaking areas & a few of the Omotic
kingdoms like Wolayta & Gamo were brought under the influence
of Christian state.
 In early 1330s, Amde-Tsion was in totally controlled all trade
routes & sources of trade of Ethiopian region
 The consolidation & territorial expansion of the Christian
Kingdom continued during the successors of Amde-Tsion.
 4.2.3. Evangelization, Religious Movements, and Religious
Reforms of Zara-Yaqob
I. Evangelization
 Christianity had a long history of expansion.
 Churches & their believers had been in existence long before expansion
of the Christian Kingdom in various parts of the Horn of Africa.
 For instance, in Shewa there were early Christians who maintained
contacts with their distant relatives in Northern part of Ethiopia.
 In the 13th C, Eyesus-Mo'a opened new opportunities of learning for
Christians who lived in the central part of Ethiopia & later evangelized
the newly incorporated areas
 The territorial expansion carried out by Amde−Tsion during medieval
period set an addition momentum for the spread of Christianity.
 Cont..,
 Abune Tekle-Haymanot (13thc) played a key role in reviving

Christianity in Shewa, which was followed by the evangelization

of areas in southern Ethiopia including medieval Damot.
 He baptized & converted Motalami to Christianity.

 The clergy, under the direction of the bishop in Ethiopia, Yaqob,

spread Christianity to different areas of Shewa such as:-

 Kil'at Tsilalish, Merhabite,
 Wereb, Moret and Wegda, and
 Fatagar, Damot, Waj and Enarya.
 II. Religious Movements

A. The Ewostatewos Movement

 Monasticism became a dominant practice in Ethiopian Orthodox Church in the

mid 13thc.

 The period witnessed dev’t of monasticism & religious mov’ts of which the major

one was the Ewostatewos movement, named after the founder.

 Ewostatewos established his own monastic community in Sara'e (in present day

Eritrea).

 There, he was joined by many students and taught until about 1337.

 Among his teachings was the strict observance of Sabbath.

 When he was opposed by an organized religious rival group of the clergy in Sera'e,

he fled the country to Egypt.

 He faced the same opposition in Cairo by Ethiopian pilgrims.

 Cont..,
 After Ewostatewos left Ethiopia, the mov’t was weakened although

his followers led by Abba Absad tried their best to maintain its
momentum.
 The mov’t revived when his followers such as Bekimos,

Merkoryewos and Gebre–Iyasus returned home from Armenia.

 The followers of Ewostatewos soon became active & dispersed to

d/t monasteries in northern Ethiopia.

 The mov’t spread to areas like Enfraz, northern Tigray, &

Hamessen.
 cont..,
 The King and the Abun opposed the movement.
 Hence, anti Ewostatewos group led by the Abbot of the Hayq
Monastery called Aqabe-Se’at Sereqe Birhan was supported by
the Abun & the monarch.
 The monarch imprisoned some of the Ewostatians due to he
feared that dispute in the church could divide his kingdom.
The clergy expelled Ewostatians from their church
services;
some of the Ewostatians were forced to withdraw and
settle in peripheral areas
while some of them sustained their movement in
monasteries like Debre- Bizen, Debre-San, etc.
 B. Deqiqe Estifanos/ the Estifanosites

 The Estifanosites were a mov’t within Ethiopian

monasticism, called so after their founder and spiritual
leader Abba Estifanos.

 Mov’t rose to prominence in the 15thc & continued until

the 16th c, when it was formally reconciled with the main

body of the Ethiopian Orthodox Church.

 The head of the movement, Abba Estifanos, was born in Agame at

the end of 14th c

 Cont..,

 He established a rigid monastic organization, which emphasized

poverty,
absolute self- subsistence,
equality and autonomy from secular authorities.

 His adversaries in the monastic circles attempted to discredit him,

but the mov’t gained followers in various monastic communities.

 When summoned to the royal court, Estifanos was initially able to

convince the emperor (probably Atse Takla Maryam, r. 1430-33) that

he posed no threat to royal power or the unity of the Church.

 III. The Religious Reforms of Emperor Zara-Yaqob
 Emperor Zara-Yaqob (r.1434-68) took several measures to
stabilize and consolidate the Orthodox Church.
 First, he settled the conflict among Ethiopian clergy in order to
create an amicable church-state relationship.
 In this regard, he made peace with the House of Ewostatewos by
reviving Sabbath in the Ethiopian church & the Ewostatian agreed
to receive Holy orders from the Ethiopian prelates.
 Further, he urged the clergy to preach Christianity in remote areas.
 Besides, he ordered the people to observe fasting on Wednesdays
& Fridays & get Father Confessors.
 Cont..,

 Lack of sufficient religious books was another problem.

 Thus, the king encouraged the establishment of a library in every

church.

 This was followed by revival of religious literature.

 He himself wrote some books like Metsafe-Birhan, Metsafe-Me’lad,

Metsafe Sillasie, Metsafe-te'aqebo Mister,etc.

 In addition, during his reign, some parts of Te’amre Maryam were

translated from Arabic to Geez.

 4.3. Political and Socio-Economic Dynamics in Muslim Sultanates

 A number of strong sultanates had emerged since the 14thc

 Trade was one of the major factors for the rise & dev.t of those

sates.

 Trade served not only as a major source of livelihood but also a

major agent for the formation of Muslm Sultanes & remained a

major source of conflict b/n Christian Kingdom & Muslim

sultanates.
 One of the strong Muslim sultanates that emerged along trade
routes & became a center of resistance against the Christian
 4.3.1. The Rise of Adal

 After its establishment, Ifat conducted a series of campaigns

against its neighboring sultanates thereby extending its
hegemony over these areas.
 It also resisted the expansion of Christian Kingdom.
 However, one branch of the Walasma family, which realized that
Ifat was becoming an easy target to the Christian Kingdom due
to its location, moved further to the southeastern lowlands and
established new & vigorous Muslim Sultanate of Adal in the
highland districts around Harar in 1367.
 Cont..,

 The first center of this extended Walasma Dynasty was at a

place called Dakar, w/c located to southeast of Harar.
 Walasma family after consolidated its power in the new center, &
began another phase of military campaigns against the frontiers
of the Christian Kingdom.
 The center of Adal in 1520 changed to the city of Harar and

 After the defeat of Imam Ahmed; a growing threat from

Oromo forced sultanate to change its capital to Awsa in
1576/7, to the present Afar region.
 4.3.2. Trade and the Expansion of Islam

 Islam spread into the central and southwestern parts of the Ethiopian

region through Muslim merchants & preachers.

 Trade served as channel for expansion of Islam in Muslim Sultanates

& it also formed economic base for Muslim states.

 The most known Muslim Sultanates during this period were Ifat

(1285-1415) & Adal (1415-77).

 The main trade outlet shifted to Zeila & old city-states of
Mogadishu, Brava, & Merca were used as ports for their
hinterland.
 meantime, for trade in the northeast, Massawa served as an outlet.
 Cont..,
 With revival of trade, d/t towns & trade centers emerged along the
route from Zeila to the interior.
 The ruins that mark the landscape around Jigjiga & highlands of
Harar & Charchar attest to the market towns that served Zeila route.
 These include
Weez-Gebeya in western Shewa/famous market on
Fatagar-Dawaro-Harar route,
Suq-Wayzaro in old Damot,
Suq-Amaja & very famous market center Gandabalo on
Ifat-Awsa route.
 Gandabalo was largely inhabited by Muslim &Christian merchants
serving kings & Sultans as an agent.
 Cont..,

 Other big market towns include the ones that linked medieval
Amhara with Awsa, called Wasel near what is today Ware-Illu,
Qorqora/Qoreta (north of Waldiya) and Mandalay in southern Tigray.
 The towns of Dabarwa, the seat of the Bahre-Negash (“Lord of the
Sea”) & Asmara were the two important entre pots of caravans in the
hinterland of Massawa.
 Muslim states had significant control over trade routes that passed
through Zeila due to their geographical proximity, although contested
by “Solomonic” Kingdom especially after its revival and
consolidation.
 4.4. Rivalry between the Christian Kingdom and the Muslim Sultanates

 Zeila was the main outlet to the sea during medieval period.

 Ambition to control this trade route & commodities that passed

through Zeila led to rivalry b/n Solomonic rulers & Sultanate of Ifat.

 The first recorded conflict b/n Christian Kingdom & Ifat took place

in 1328 when Muslim Sultanates organized their armies to take

military action against Christian Kingdom.

 The Sultan of Ifat, Haqaddin I stopped merchants belonging to

Christian King, Amde-Tsion, confiscating goods, capturing &

imprisoning king's agent, Ti’iyintay returning from Cairo.

 Cont..,
 These actions forced Amde-Tsion to wage a campaign against
Haqaddin I; defeated & took him prisoner and eventually replaced
him by his brother Sabradin.
 Both Ifat & Fatagar came under Sabradin.
 Ifat was defeated and Sabradin was captured during his retreat.
 As a result, Ifat, Fatagar & Dawaro were incorporated.
 Amde-Tsion required from them annual tributes & freedom of
movement for all caravans through Zeila.
 Following the decline of Ifat, other Muslim Sultanates like
Sharkha, Bali, Dara, and Arbabani were also seriously weakened.
 Cont..,

 It was b/c of this conflicts some members of Walasma moved their

seat of power further east to Adal & continued their struggle.
 To check their attacks on the highlands, the successors of Emperor
Amde-Tsion conducted repeated campaigns into lowlands.
 In 1376, Haqadin II came to power & refused to pay tribute&
rebelled against Neway-Maryam (1371-80), the son of Amde-Tsion.
 H/r, he died fighting in 1386. Similarly, successor of Haqadin II,
Sa’d ad-Din II (1386-1402) gained initial success until king Dawit
I (1380-1412) in 1402/3 extended his expansion and defeated him.
 Sa’d ad-Din II became refuge in Zeila until King Yishaq (r.1413-30)
killed him in 1415.
 Cont..,

 During mid15thc, Emperor Zara Yaqob gained some access to Red

Sea.
 1445 Zara Yaqob defeated Sultan Ahmed Badlay at battle of
Yeguba.
 As a result, the son & successor of Ahmed Badlay, Mohammed
Ahmed (r.1445-71) sent a message of submission to Ba’ede Mariam
(1468-78) to remain vassal of the Christian Kings.
 On the death of Mohammed, however, Adal was still strong and
continued its struggle.
 Hence, z reigning monarch, Ba’ede-Mariamcampaigned against Adal.
 Despite initial successes, army of Ba'ede-Mariam lost the battle in
 Cont..,
 successors of Ba'ede-Mariam proved weak in their
dealings with the rulers of Muslim Sultanates.
 At the same time, leaders of the Muslim Sultanate sought to
resolve the problem peacefully.
 As a result, Mohammad ibn Azhar ad-Din (1488-1518)
attempted to smoothen r/ns with Christian Kingdom.
 However, among the various Sultans of Muslim sultanates,
Emir Mahfuz carried out some effective military
campaigns into the highlands.
 In 1517 Emir Mahfuz died fighting against Emperor
Lebne-Dengel's (1508-40) force & his son-in-law, Imam
Ahmed ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi, popularly known as Ahmed
Gragn or the "left-handed" took over the leadership.
 Cont..,

 Apart from the hostile relations, there were wider socio-economic

& cultural interactions b/n Christian Kingdom & Muslim

principalities.

 As in earlier periods, trade continued to be the major channel of

social integration & source of friendship, interaction,

interdependence, and conflict among the states of the region.

 LTD & local markets served as core areas of social ties.

 The difference in
 ecology of the Muslim sultanates and the Christian Kingdom created
economic interdependence, which in due course strengthened
socio-economic bondage.
 Cont..,
 It was through such caravan merchants that social links were
strengthened & religions spread.
 These interactions & interdependence in economic, social,
cultural & political spheres lay the foundation for modern Ethiopia.
 The period witnessed the flourishing of Geez literature as is evident
from works of Abba Giorgis Ze-Gasicha & others philosophies
epitomized by Zara-Ya'iqob (not to be confused with the king).
 On the Muslim side, literature had developed including the works
of Arab writers such as Ibn Fadil al Umari, Ibn Khaldun & others.
 4.5. External Relations

4.5.1. Relations with Egypt

 From late 13thc onwards, Christian Kingdom continued to maintain
relations with Egypt, which was mainly religious in character.
 In 1272, Yekuno-Amlak sent an emissary to Egypt’s Sultan,
Baybars, requesting an Abun from Coptic Church.
 Furthermore, both Egypt & Ethiopia continued to act as protectors of
religious minorities in their respective domain.
 Egypt also wanted to ensure secure flow of the Nile (the Abay River)
that originated from Ethiopia.
 Cont..,
 In early 14thc, Mohammed ibn Qala’un persecuted the Copts & destroyed

their churches in Cairo.

 In response, Amde-Tsion demanded the restoration of the churches &

warned that failure to do so would result in the diversion of the Nile

waters.

 Patriarch Marqos (1348- 63) sent a message to Sayfa-Arad (r.1344-71),

revealing his imprisonment by the then Egyptian Sultan.

 Sayfa-Arad is said to have mobilized a huge army against Egypt after

which the Sultan released the patriarch & sent a delegation to the king.
 Cont..,
 Besides, Patriarch Matewos (1328-1408) delegated by the Sultan,
established harmonious relations between King Dawit and Egypt.
 Thus, Sultan sent the "True Cross" & in return, Dawit gave him a
number of religious paintings to the Sultan.
 In 1437/8, Zara-Yaqob wrote a friendly letter to Sultan Barsbay
requesting the protection of Christians in Egypt.
 H/r 3 years later, Patriarch Yohannes XI wrote Zara-Yaqob a letter
stating demolition of famous church of Mitmaq(Debre-Mitmaq).
 Then ZaraYaqob sent an envoy to Sultan Jaqmaq (1438-53) with a
strongly worded letter.
 Cont..,

 As with Muslim Arab world, Christian Kingdom maintained

relations with Christian Europe.
 During the medieval period, contacts b/n two regions were strongly
influenced by the legend of “Prester John”.
 Ethiopian delegation was in attendance of Gian Galeazzo Visconti’s
coronation in Milan in 1395.
 In 1418, three Ethiopians attended the Council of Constance.
 In another report, message from an Ethiopian monarch, Amde-Tsion
was presented to King Phillip of France in 1332.
 Cont..,
 Earliest known message to Ethiopia from a European monarch is the letter of King
Henry IV of England dated 1400 A.D. and addressed to “Prester John”, purported
king of the Christian Kingdom.
 The identification of the King with “Prester John” was firmly established in the
fourteenth century.
 They even thought that it was possible to liberate Jerusalem with the help of this
King.
 Hence, during the reign of King Dawit, leaders of Rome, Constantinople, Syria,
Armenia and Egypt sent letters to the king in which they asked for support.
 King Dawit received some Italian craftsmen consisting mainly of Florentines.

 In 1402, King Dawit sent first delegation to Europe led by a Florentine man called
Antonio Bartoli.
 cont..,

 Alphonso de Paiva V of Aragon received a delegation from Yishaq in the city

of Valentia, in 1427.
 Yishaq’s delegation to Europe was to ask for more artisans and military
experts.
 The embassy of Duke of Berry consisting craftsmen, Neapolitan Pietro, a
Spaniard and a Frenchman reached Ethiopia during the reign of Yishaq.
 In 1450 a Sicilian Pietro Rombulo, was sent to Europe as Zara-Yaqob’s
ambassador.
 An Ethiopian priest, Fikre Mariam & two other individuals accompanied Pietro
Rombulo
 King Zara-Yaqob sent delegates to Alphonso to get political, military, and
technical assistance.
 Cont..,
 Alphonso wrote a letter to ZaraYaqob and informed him that he
has sent him artisans & masons he requested.
 The most authentic pieces of evidence on Ethio-Europe links are
the maps of Egyptus Novelo (1454) & Fra Mauro's Mappomondo
(1460) w/c clearly depicted many places and peoples.
 Venetian Gregorio or Hieronion Bicini visited Ethiopia in 1482.
 Pedros da Covilhao/Peter de Covilham arrived at the court of
Eskindir (1478-1494) in 1493.
 Cont..,
 The beginning &continued rivalry b/n Christian Kingdom &

Muslim Sultanates in 15thc strengthened the relation b/n Christian

Kingdom & Christian Europe.
 Queen Elleni played great role in strengthening of these relations.

 She had foreseen the threat that came from the Ottoman Turkish who

showed a clear interest to support the Muslim Sultanates.

 She also had foreseen the possibility of consolidating relations with

and getting support from Portugal that was against the Turks.
 Cont..,
 1508 Portugal sent envoy to act as ambassador to Christian
Ethiopia.
 Around 1512, Queen Elleni, the mother & regent of Lebne-Dengel
sent an Armenian called Mathew to Portugal.
 Portuguese court doubted his authenticity & was received coldly.
 Portuguese Embassy led by Rodrigo di Lima, Duwarto Galliba &
Francisco Alvarez reached Ethiopia in 1520 & remained for 6 years.
 The objective was to establish a naval port against the expanding
Turkish power in Red Sea Area.
 The mission was not successful.