Ch.

29 Maxwell’s Equations and

Electromagnetic Waves

• Ampere’s law enhanced by Maxwell

• Maxwell’s equations
• Electromagnetic (EM) waves
• How to produce EM waves
• Energy and momentum in EM waves
 Lecture plan

20 November 2024: Recorded lecture

The four laws of electromagnetism: a review

applied to steady currents

• Sources of E/B-field

• Relation among E-field, B-field, and their sources

Symmetry btw Faraday and Ampere laws

Faraday Ampere
Symmetry
𝑑 Φ𝐵
∮ 𝐸 ∙ 𝑑 𝑙=− 𝑑𝑡 +¿
⃗ ⃗ ⃗
𝐵∙𝑑 ⃗
∮ 0 𝐼+¿
𝑙=𝜇
• Faraday’s law doesn’t contain the term similar to of Ampere’s law be-
cause we didn’t find magnetic monopoles.
Maxwell’s insight
• Time-varying E-field can cause B-field?
Ambiguity in Ampere’s law – Maxwell’s insight

• Applying Ampere’s law to a circuit with a changing current results in

an ambiguity.
Four surfaces bounded by
the same circular Amperian
Time varying current in a RC circuit
loop around the capacitor.
⃗
∮ 𝐵∙𝑑 𝑙=𝜇0 𝐼
⃗

No current flow
through the surface
3.
Ambiguity in Ampere’s law – Maxwell’s insight

• Maxwell used this ambiguity, along with

symmetry considerations, to conclude that
“a changing electric field, in addition to
current, should be a source of magnetic
field.”
Ampere’s law with Maxwell’s modification

⃗ ⃗ 𝑑Φ 𝐸
∮ 𝐵 ∙ 𝑑 𝑙=𝜇0 𝐼+𝜇0 𝜖 0 𝑑𝑡
𝑑 Φ𝐸
𝜖0 : displacement current,
𝑑𝑡
Displacement current is indistinguishable
from real current in producing magnetic fields.
cf) conduction current
Example 29.1 displacement current: a capacitor

𝑑𝑞 𝑑𝑉
𝑞=𝐶𝑉 =𝐶
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

𝑉 𝑑 Φ 𝐸 𝐴 𝑑𝑉
Φ 𝐸 =𝐸𝐴= 𝐴 =
𝑑 𝑑𝑡 𝑑 𝑑𝑡

𝑑 Φ𝐸 𝐴 𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝑞
𝐼 𝐷 =𝜖 0 =𝜖 0 =𝐶 = =𝐼
𝑑𝑡 𝑑 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Maxwell’s equation
Now, beautiful symmetry

⃗ ⃗ 𝑑 Φ ⃗ ⃗ 𝑑Φ
∮ 𝐸 ∙ 𝑑 𝑙=− 𝑑𝑡 𝐵
∮ 𝐵 ∙ 𝑑 𝑙=𝜇0 𝐼+𝜇0 𝜖 0 𝑑𝑡 𝐸
Maxwell’s equations in vacuum

0 No electric charge

0
No electric current

⃗
∮ 𝐴=0
𝐸∙𝑑 ⃗ (Gauss, ) ⃗
∮ 𝐴=0
𝐵∙𝑑 ⃗ (Gauss, )

⃗ ⃗ 𝑑 Φ𝐵 ⃗ ⃗ 𝑑 Φ𝐸
∮ 𝐸 ∙ 𝑑 𝑙=− 𝑑𝑡 (Faraday) ∮ 𝐵 ∙ 𝑑 𝑙=𝜇0 𝜖 0 𝑑𝑡 (Ampere)
A plane electromagnetic wave

• Its wavefronts are infinite planes  Its properties don’t vary in direc-
tions perpendicular to the wave propagation.

• A good approximation at large distances from a point source

• In vacuum, the E-field and B-field of an EM wave are:

• perpendicular to each other.

• perpendicular to the wave propagation direction.  a transverse wave

• The E-field and B-field are in phase.

• When a plane EM wave propagate in the x-direction,

⃗
𝐸 ( 𝑥 , 𝑡 ) =𝐸 𝑝 sin ⁡(𝑘𝑥 −𝜔 𝑡) ^𝒋
⃗ ^
𝐵 ( 𝑥 , 𝑡 )= 𝐵𝑝 sin ⁡(𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔 𝑡 ) 𝒌
A plane EM wave

⃗
𝐸 ( 𝑥 , 𝑡 ) =𝐸 𝑝 sin ⁡(𝑘𝑥 −𝜔 𝑡) ^𝒋
⃗ ^
𝐵 ( 𝑥 , 𝑡 )= 𝐵𝑝 sin ⁡(𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔 𝑡 ) 𝒌
 A plane EM wave

A snap shot (fixed time) of some field vectors and field lines in a plane EM wave.

⃗
𝐸 ( 𝑥 , 𝑡 ) =𝐸 𝑝 sin ⁡(𝑘𝑥 −𝜔 𝑡) ^𝒋
⃗ ^
𝐵 ( 𝑥 , 𝑡 )= 𝐵𝑝 sin ⁡(𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔 𝑡 ) 𝒌
A plane EM wave – Maxwell’s equations

• Gauss’s laws

⃗
∮ 𝐴=0
𝐸∙𝑑 ⃗ ⃗
∮ 𝐴=0
𝐵∙𝑑 ⃗
 Field lines of the EM wave extend to infinity
(no beginnings or endings)
A plane EM wave – Maxwell’s equations

• Faraday’s law

⃗ ⃗ 𝑑 Φ𝐵
∮ 𝐸 ∙ 𝑑 𝑙=− 𝑑𝑡
for any rectangular loop
LHS at a fixed instant of time

⃗
𝐸∙𝑑 ⃗
∮ 𝑙=− 𝐸h+( 𝐸+𝑑𝐸 ) h=h𝑑𝐸
RHS at a fixed position
𝑑 Φ𝐵 𝑑𝐵
− =−h 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

𝜕𝐸 𝜕𝐵
=−
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑡
The rate at which the E-field changes with position depends on the
rate at which the B-field changes with time.
A plane EM wave – Maxwell’s equations

• Ampere’s law

⃗ ⃗ 𝑑 Φ𝐸
∮ 𝐵 ∙ 𝑑 𝑙=𝜇0 𝜖 0 𝑑𝑡
for any rectangular loop
LHS at a fixed instant of time

⃗
𝐵∙𝑑 ⃗
∮ 𝐵h −( 𝐵+𝑑𝐵) h=−h𝑑𝐵
𝑙=
RHS at a fixed position
𝑑Φ𝐸 𝑑𝐸
𝜇0 𝜖 0 =𝜇 0 𝜖0 h 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

𝜕𝐵 𝜕𝐸
=−𝜇 0 𝜖0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑡
The rate at which the B-field changes with position depends on the
rate at which the E-field changes with time.
Conditions on the wave fields

from Faraday’s law 𝜕𝐸 𝜕𝐵 from Ampere’s law 𝜕𝐵 𝜕𝐸

=− =−𝜇 0 𝜖0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑡
• A self-perpetuating electromagnetic structure, whose fields exist and
change without the need for charged matter!

𝜕 𝜕𝐸 𝜕 𝜕𝐵 2
𝜕 𝐸 𝜕 𝜕𝐵 𝜕 𝐸
2
=− =− =𝜇 𝜖
0 0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕 𝑥 𝜕 𝑥 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥
2
𝜕𝑡 𝜕 𝑥 𝜕𝑡
2

𝜕 𝜕𝐵 𝜕 𝜕𝐸 2
𝜕 𝐵 𝜕 𝐵
2
=−𝜇 0 𝜖 0 =𝜇 𝜖
0 0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕 𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥
2
𝜕𝑡
2
c.f. wave equation in ch.14

1 𝜕 2 𝑦 𝜕2 𝑦
A plane EM wave can be one solution. 2 2
− 2
=0
𝑣 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥
⃗
𝐸 ( 𝑥 , 𝑡 ) =𝐸 𝑝 sin ⁡(𝑘𝑥 −𝜔 𝑡) ^𝒋 𝑦 ( 𝑥 , 𝑡 )= 𝑓 ( 𝑥 ± 𝑣𝑡 )
𝑦 ( 𝑥 , 𝑡 )= 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠 ( 𝑘𝑥 ± 𝜔 𝑡 )
⃗ ^
𝐵 ( 𝑥 , 𝑡 )= 𝐵𝑝 sin ⁡(𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔 𝑡 ) 𝒌
𝑣 =𝜔 /𝑘
Conditions on the wave fields

• Let’s put the plane wave solutions to original equations

⃗
𝐸 ( 𝑥 , 𝑡 ) =𝐸 𝑝 sin ⁡(𝑘𝑥 −𝜔 𝑡) ^𝒋 ⃗ ^
𝐵 ( 𝑥 , 𝑡 )= 𝐵𝑝 sin ⁡(𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔 𝑡 ) 𝒌

𝜕𝐸 𝜕𝐵
𝜕𝑥
=−
𝜕𝑡 𝑘 𝐸𝑝 =𝜔 𝐵𝑝

𝜕𝐵 𝜕𝐸 2
𝜇 0 𝜖 0 𝜔 𝐵𝑝
=−𝜇 0 𝜖0 𝑘 𝐵𝑝 =𝜇0 𝜖 0 𝜔 𝐸 𝑝 =
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑡 𝑘
2
𝜔 1
=
𝑘
2
𝜖 0 𝜇0
Properties of EM waves: speed

• Wave speed
2𝜋
distance per period 𝜆 𝑇 𝜔 (angular frequency=2πf)
𝑣 =¿ ¿ =
𝑇 2𝜋
=
𝑘 (wave number)
time per period
𝜆

𝜔 1
EM wave speed in vacuum 𝑣 =𝑐= =
𝑘 √ 𝜖 0 𝜇0

1 1 8
𝑐= = =3.00 × 10 𝑚/ 𝑠
√ 𝜖 0 𝜇0 √ ( 8.85 × 10 𝐶 / 𝑁 ∙𝑚 ) ( 4 𝜋 ×10 𝑁 / 𝐴 )
−12 2 2 −7 2

The EM wave (light) speed in vacuum is constant.

is independent of amplitude, frequency, wavelength

Properties of EM waves: amplitude

• Wave amplitude
By Faraday’s and Ampere’s laws:
𝜔
𝑘 𝐸𝑝 =𝜔 𝐵𝑝 𝐸= 𝐵=𝑐𝐵
𝑘
In the textbook,
“.. During the two centuries before Maxwell, scientists had measured light’s speed
with increasing accuracy. They had recognized, thanks to Thomas Young’s 1801
interference experiment, that light consists of waves. Then, in the 1860s, came Maxwell.

Using a theory developed from lab experiments on electricity and magnetism,

with no reference to optics or light, Maxwell showed how the interplay of electric
and magnetic fields results in electromagnetic waves. ….

Maxwell’s identification of light as an electromagnetic phenomenon is a classical example

of the unification of knowledge in science. With one simple calculation, Maxwell brought
the entire science of optics under the umbrella of electromagnetism. Maxwell’s work stands
as a crowning intellectual triumph, one whose implications are still expanding
our view of the universe. …
Properties of EM waves: polarization

• Polarization: the direction of the electric field and thus determines the
perpendicular magnetic-field directions

⃗
𝐸=𝐸 𝑦 (𝑥 , 𝑡) ^𝑗 ⃗ ^
𝐸=𝐸 𝑧 ( 𝑥 , 𝑡 ) 𝑘
Properties of EM waves: polarization

• Polarized EM waves:
• EM waves from antennas, laser light, …

• Unpolarized EM waves:
• light from hot sources such as the Sun and a light bulb

• Polarizing material
• Many crystals and synthetic materials such as Polaroid exhibit a trans-
mission axis.

• It passes unattenuated only the component of the wave field along the
transmission axis, namely

• A wave of intensity emerges from a polarizer with intensity given by the

law of Malus: 𝑆=𝑆0 𝑐𝑜𝑠2 𝜃
Polarizer: allow only one direction of E-field
Electromagnetic spectrum

wavelength 400 nm 500 nm 600 nm 700 nm

• Naming the different types of electromagnetic waves is just a convenience.

• There are no gaps in the continuous range of frequencies and wavelengths.
• Practical differences arise because waves of different wavelengths
interact differently with matter.
Producing EM waves

• A changing electric or magnetic field  inducing the other field  con-

tinuously regenerating one another  EM waves

EM waves are generated ultimately by accelerated electric charge!

Details of emitting systems depend on wavelength,

with most efficient emitters being roughly a wavelength in size.

• Radio waves are generated by AC in metal antennas.

• Molecular vibration and rotation produce IR waves
• Visible light arises largely from atomic-scale processes.
• X-ray are produced in the rapid deceleration of electric charge.
• Gamma rays result from nuclear processes.
Producing EM waves

EM waves are generated ultimately by accelerated electric charge!

A radio transmitter and antenna E-fields of an oscillating electric dipole

 Energy in EM waves

Wave Intensity: the rate at which a wave transports energy across a unit area
: its units are W/m2
(

)=
Energy in EM waves

⃗
𝐸×⃗ 𝐵
Poynting vector: energy flux of EM wave
⃗
𝑆=
𝜇0
~ rate of energy flow per unit area

Ep Bp
Average intensity: S
2 0

Wave fronts
Plane waves

The direction of the

Amplitude of fields
Poynting vector

|⃗
𝑆|∝𝑟
0
EM waves from localized sources

A spherical wave

𝑃
𝑆= 2
4𝜋𝑟
1
|𝐸|∝
𝑟
• The fields of a spherical wave decrease as .
• c.f. The E-field of a stationary point charge decreases .

(considering energy conservation, explain decrease of S)

-> The intensity decreases not because electromagnetic waves
weaken and lose energy but because their energy gets spread
ever more thinly.
Momentum in EM waves

• EM wave transports not only energy but also momentum

𝑈
The relation between wave energy and momentum: 𝑝= 𝑐
 EM wave can exert a radiation pressure on a surface due to its
absorption and reflection
(complete absorption) (complete reflection)

Δ𝑈 2 Δ𝑈
Δ 𝑝= Δ 𝑝=
𝑐 𝑐

radiation
pressure
𝑃= =
𝐴
𝑆
⟨ ⟩ ⟨ ⟩
⟨ 𝐹 ⟩ 1 𝑑𝑝 1 𝑑𝑈 1
=
𝐴 𝑑𝑡
= 𝑆𝐴
𝐴𝑐 𝑑𝑡 𝐴𝑐
𝑃=
2𝑆
𝑐

𝑃=
𝑐
Summary

God said,

⃗ ⃗ 𝑞
∮ 𝐸 ∙ 𝑑 𝐴=
𝜖0
⃗
∮ 𝐴=0
𝐵∙𝑑 ⃗
1 𝜕 ⃗
2
𝑑 Φ𝐵 𝐸 2⃗
⃗ ⃗ and there was light, − ∇ 𝐸=0
∮ 𝐸 ∙ 𝑑 𝑙=− 𝑑𝑡 2
𝑐0 𝜕 𝑡 2

⃗ ⃗ 𝑑Φ 𝐸
∮ 𝐵 ∙ 𝑑 𝑙=𝜇0 𝐼+𝜇0 𝜖 0 𝑑𝑡 ⃗
𝐸 ( 𝑥 , 𝑡 ) =𝐸 𝑝 sin ⁡(𝑘𝑥 −𝜔 𝑡) ^𝒋
⃗ ^
𝐵 ( 𝑥 , 𝑡 )= 𝐵𝑝 sin ⁡(𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔 𝑡 ) 𝒌

𝜔 1 ⃗
𝐸×⃗ 𝐵
𝑐= = ⃗
𝑆=
𝑘 √ 𝜖 0 𝜇0 𝜇0