BRAKING SYSTEMS
BRAKING SYSTEMS
• Used to slow, stop or hold vehicle.
• Two types are used in vehicles:
– Service brakes operated by foot
– Parking brakes, operated by foot pedal or by hand lever, which
hold vehicle stationary when applied.
• Most service brakes are hydraulic.
• Service brakes on medium and heavy duty trucks and
buses are pneumatic.
• All these braking systems depend on friction between
moving parts and stationary parts for their stopping force.
Braking Action
• The service braking system includes two basic parts:
– the master cylinder
– the drum and disc wheel-brake mechanisms
• The master cylinder is a reciprocating-piston pump.
• It pressurizes the hydraulic system when the driver
depresses the brake pedal.
• This converts the mechanical force from the brake
pedal into hydraulic force that applies the brakes at
the wheels.
Braking Action
• When the pedal is pushed down, brake fluid is
forced from the master cylinder into the lines to the
wheel brakes.
• As hydraulic pressure increases, brake shoes or
pads are forced against the rotating drums or discs.
• The resulting friction slows or stops the wheels and
the vehicle.
• Figure 1 shows the basic service-brake hydraulic
system.
Fig.1: Basic Hydraulic Brake System
Dual Braking System
• There are two pistons in the master cylinder. The spaces ahead
of the pistons form two pressure chambers.
• This arrangement using a two-piston tandem or dual master
cylinder is a dual braking system.
• In a dual braking system, the hydraulic system has a primary
section and a secondary section.
• The dual braking system is hydraulically separated or split in
different ways. Most vehicles with rear wheel drive use the
front-rear split. (Fig. 2a)
• Many front wheel-drive vehicles use the diagonal split (Fig.2b).
• Splitting the hydraulic system into two sections improves vehicle
safety. One section will continue to work and stop the vehicle if
the other section leaks and fails.
Fig. 2: Dual Braking Systems
Types of Brakes
• Fig.3 shows the two types of brakes:
– Drum brakes
– Disc brakes
• Drum brake has metal drum that encloses the
brake assembly at each wheel.
• Disc brakes has a metal disc instead of a drum
and has a pair of flat, lined shoes or pads
Fig.3: Drum and Disc Brakes
Drum Brake Construction
• The drum brake (Fig. 4) has a metal brake drum that
encloses the brake assembly at each wheel.
• Two curved brake shoes expand outward to slow or
stop the drum which rotates with the wheel.
• The assembly attaches to a steering knuckle, axle
housing, or strut-spindle assembly.
• The bottoms of the shoes are held apart by anchor pins
attached to the backing plate, or by a floating adjusting
screw .
• The tops of the shoes are held apart by wheel cylinder .
Brake shoes are made of metal with brake lining
material riveted or cemented to the shoes.
Wheel Cylinder
• The wheel cylinder converts the hydraulic pressure
from the master cylinder into mechanical movement.
• It has two pistons, with seals or cups, and a spring in
between.
• As the pressure increases, the pistons overcome the
brake-shoe return springs and push the shoes outward
into contact with the drum.
• In four-wheel drum brakes, the front wheel-cylinder
pistons are usually larger than the pistons in the rear
wheel cylinders since braking transfers more of the
vehicle weight to the front wheels.
Fig. 4: Drum Brake Assembly
Drum Brake Operation
Leading – Trailing Drum Brake Fig. 5
• The return or retracting springs hold both shoes against the
wheel cylinder at the top, and against fixed anchor pins at
the bottom.
• Depressing the brake pedal causes the wheel-cylinder
pistons to move the tops of the shoes outward against the
drums.
• Friction between the forward or leading shoe and the drum
causes the leading shoe to try to rotate with the drum.
• This self-energizing action of the leading shoe forces the
bottom of the shoe against the anchor pin thus the leading
shoe does most of the braking.
Drum Brake Operation
• When the rear or trailing shoe contacts the
drum, drum rotation tries to force the shoe
away from the drum.
• There is no self-energizing action. Therefore,
the trailing shoe usually wears less than the
leading shoe.
• The leading and trailing shoes swap jobs when
the vehicle is braked while moving in reverse
Fig 5:Leading-Trailing Drum Brake
Duo Servo Drum Brake
• The tops of the shoes rest against a" single anchor pin
and the bottoms of the shoes are linked together by a
floating adjusting screw.
• The shoe toward the front of the vehicle is the primary
shoe and the shoe toward the rear is the secondary
shoe.
• The primary shoe normally has shorter lining than the
secondary shoe.
• When the shoes contact the rotating drum, the friction
causes both shoes to try to rotate with the drum.
• The top of the primary shoe tends to pull into the drum
and move downward.
Duo Servo Drum Brake
• The bottom of the shoe then pushes the
adjusting screw rearward.
• This forces the bottom of the secondary shoe
against the drum which moves the secondary
shoe upward against the anchor pin.
• Thus drum rotation tends to pull both shoes
more tightly into the drum. This increases the
self-energizing action of the secondary shoe.
Fig. 6:Duo Servo Drum Brake
Duo Servo Drum Brake
• the self-energizing action of both shoes make
total braking force greater than the amount
supplied by the wheel cylinder.
• The secondary shoe has longer lining because
it provides about twice as much braking force
as the primary shoe.
• The functions of each shoe change when
braking with the vehicle moving in reverse .
Drum Brake Self Adjusters
• Most drum brakes self-adjust to compensate for lining
wear. This prevents the brake pedal from getting lower
and lower during normal use.
• Two types of self-adjusters used on leading-trailing
brakes are the one-shot (Fig. 4) and the incremental (Fig.
5).
• The one-shot makes a single adjustment when the
clearance between the lining and drum reaches a preset
gap.
• Thereafter no additional adjustments can be made. The
shoes must be replaced and the self-adjuster reset.
Drum Brake Self Adjusters
• Figure 5 shows a leading-trailing brake with an
incremental adjuster. It moves the shoes outward
whenever the gap is large enough to turn the
adjusting screw.
• Adjustment occurs when the vehicle is braked while
moving either forward or rearward. As the brake
shoes move outward, the adjusting-screw retracting
spring causes the adjusting lever to pivot upward.
• If the lining is worn enough, the lever moves above
the end of the next tooth on the adjusting wheel.
Drum Brake Self Adjusters
• When the brakes are released, the adjuster
lever pivots downward. This turns the tooth.
The adjusting screw then lengthens slightly to
move the shoes closer to the drum.
• Figures 6 and7 show an incremental self
adjuster attached to the secondary shoe of a
duo-servo brake. An adjusting lever attaches to
a self-adjuster cable that passes around a cable
guide and fastens to the anchor pin. The
adjustment is made when the vehicle is moving
backward and the brakes are applied.
Fig.7: Drum Brake Self Adjuster
Drum Brake Self Adjusters
• Then friction forces the upper end of the primary shoe
against the anchor pin.
• The wheel cylinder forces the upper end of the
secondary shoe away from the anchor pin and
downward. This causes the cable to pull the adjusting
lever upward by pivoting in a hole in the secondary shoe.
If the brake linings have worn enough, the lever passes
over and engages the end of a new tooth on the
adjusting wheel.
• When the brakes are released, the adjuster spring (Fig. 7)
pulls the adjusting lever downward. This turns the tooth
and slightly lengthens the adjusting screw. The brake
shoes move closer to the drum.
Fig.8: Disc Brakes
Disc Brakes
• The disc brake (Fig. 8) has a metal disc or rotor
instead of a drum.
• It uses a pair of flat, lined shoes or pads that
are forced against the rotating disc to produce
braking.
• The pads are held in a calliper (Figs. 8 and 9)
that straddles the disc. The calliper has one or
more pistons, with a seal and dust boot for
each.
Fig.9: Disc Brake Assembly
Disc Brakes
• During braking, hydraulic pressure behind each piston
in Fig. 8 pushes it outward. This forces the pad into
contact with the disc. The resulting frictional contact
slows and stops the disc and wheel
• There are three types of disc brakes:
– a fixed-calliper disc brake (fig. 10A).
– floatingcalliper (Fig. 11)
– sliding-calliper (fig. 12).
• Each differs in how the calliper mounts and operates.
Fig. 10: Types of Disc Brakes
Fixed Calliper
• Has pistons on both sides of the disc. (fig. 10A)
• Some use two pistons, one on each side
others use four pistons.
• The calliper is rigidly attached to a steering
knuckle or other stationary vehicle part. Only
the pistons and pads move when the brakes
are applied.
Fig. 11: Floating Calliper Disc Brake
Floating Calliper
• A floating calliper (Figs. 10B and 11) has only one
piston, located on the inboard side of the disc.
• The calliper moves or "floats" on rubber bushings
on one or two steel guide pins. The bushings allow
the calliper to move slightly when the brakes are
applied.
• Some floating callipers have two pistons on the
inboard side of the disc.
• Applying the brakes causes brake fluid to flow into
the calliper.
Floating Calliper
• This pushes the piston outward so the inboard
shoe is forced against the disc.
• At the same time, the pressure pushes against
the caliper with an equal and opposite force.
This reaction causes the caliper to move
slightly on the bushings, bringing the outboard
shoe into contact with the disc. The two pads
clamp the disc to produce the braking action.
Fig. 12: Sliding Types
Sliding Calliper
• Figure 12 shows a sliding-calliper disc brake.
• It is similar to the floating-calliper brake.
• Both callipers move slightly when the brakes
are applied.
• However, the sliding calliper slides on
machined surfaces on the steering-knuckle
adapter or anchor plate.
• No guide pins are used.
Fig.13: Brake System Valves
BRAKE-SYSTEMVALVES
PRESSURE-DIFFERENTIAL VALVE
• The pressure-differential valve (Fig. 13) turns
on the instrument-panel BRAKE warning light
if either section of the hydraulic system loses
pressure.
• The pressure loss on one side of the piston
causes it to move toward the side with the
lowest pressure.
• This raises the plunger which closes the switch
and turns on the light.
Metering Valve
• Cars with front-disc and rear-drum brakes have a hold-
off valve or metering valve in the line to the front brakes
(Figs. 13).
• During light braking, the metering valve prevents the
front disc brakes from applying until after the rear brakes
start to apply.
• It prevents the front disc brakes from applying first
thereby avoiding the weight shift to the front wheels
which can cause the front end to dip excessively and the
rear tires to skid.
• This condition usually indicates a bad metering valve.
Fig. 14:Load Sensing Proportioning Valve
Proportioning Valve
• A proportioning valve (Fig. 13) is used in the rear
brake line of some vehicles with front-disc and rear
drum brakes.
• During hard braking, more vehicle weight transfers
to the front wheels.
• As a result, less braking is needed at the rear
wheels. Equal brake pressures could cause the rear
wheels to lock and skid.
• The proportioning valve has no affect on hydraulic
pressure during normal braking.
Proportioning Valve
• However, hard braking causes the fluid pressure to
go above a preset value called the split point. The
proportioning valve then reduces the amount of
pressure increase to the rear drum brakes according
to it certain ratio.
• A vehicle with a diagonally split hydraulic system
has two proportioning valves, one in each rear-brake
section of the hydraulic system. These proportioning
valves may be in the master cylinder outlets or
combined in a separate dual proportioning valve.
Proportioning Valve
• Some light-duty trucks have a rear-mounted load-
or height-sensing proportioning valve (Fig. 14).
• It adjusts the pressure to the rear brakes
according to a change in load or rear body height.
When the truck has a light load, a lever partially
closes the proportioning valve. T
• his reduces hydraulic pressure to the rear brakes.
A heavy load opens the proportioning valve which
increases the hydraulic pressure.
Fig. 15: Combination Valve
Combination Valve
• Many vehicles with front-disc and rear-drum
brakes use a combination valve (Fig. 15).
• It combines the pressure- differential valve,
metering valve and proportioning valve in a
single assembly.
Master Cylinder Construction
• Figure 16 shows an older integral master cylinder. It
has a single-piece cast-iron body with a dual
reservoir.
• Most vehicles now use a composite master cylinder
(Fig. 17). A separate plastic reservoir attaches to the
aluminium body with rubber grommets or seals.
• Some master cylinders have a built-in fluid-level
sensor in the reservoirs.
• The sensor turns on a warning light in the
instrument panel when brake fluid is low.
Fig. 16: Integral Master Cylinder
Master Cylinder Construction
• Integral and composite master cylinders work in
the same way.
• Two pistons move back and forth in a common
bore (Fig. 17). The space in front of each piston
serves as a fluid chamber that is kept filled by the
reservoir above it. The primary piston is closest to
the fire wall and directly operated by the pushrod
from the brake pedal.
• The secondary piston is ahead of the primary
piston
Fig. 17:Composite Master Cylinder
Master Cylinder Construction
• Two holes, the vent port the replenishing port in the
bottom of each reservoir open into the cylinder
bore.
• While the brakes are not applied, fluid flows
through the vent ports to fill the high-pressure
chamber ahead of each piston.
• When the piston moves forward as the brakes are
applied, the piston pushes the seal or cup past the
vent port.
•
Master Cylinder Construction
• This traps the fluid which is forced through the
brake lines and hoses. The resulting pressure
increase applies the brakes at the wheels.
• The replenishing port allows fluid from the
reservoir to fill the low-pressure chamber
behind the piston .
• When the brakes are released, return springs
in the master cylinder force the pistons to
return to their released positions
Brake Fluid
• Brake fluid is a chemically-inert hydraulic fluid
used to transmit force and motion.
• It also lubricates the pistons in the master
cylinder, wheel cylinders, and calipers.
• There are three types of brake fluid classified
by the Department of Transportation (DOT) as
DOT 3, DOT 4, and DOT 5.
• The classification must appear on the brake
fluid container.
Brake Fluid
• DOT 3 is most widely used.
• DOT 4 was developed for disc-brake systems
which develop higher temperatures than drum-
brake systems.
• DOT 5 is silicone based and can take even
higher temperatures.
• However, DOT 5 fluid is incompatible with DOT
3 or 4 fluid and must not be mixed with either
of them.
Brake Fluid
• DOT 3 and 4 brake fluids are hygroscopic ie they absorb
moisture.
• Moisture in brake fluid lowers its boiling point. Hard and
prolonged braking, as when going down a hill, can overheat
the brake fluid and cause the moisture to boil.
• This forms vapour that compresses when the brake pedal is
depressed .Then there is little pressure increase in the
hydraulic system and braking is lost.
• Brake fluid is stored in air tight containers to protect it from
moisture.
• Master cylinders have flexible diaphragms or sealed caps
that cover the reservoirs. They prevent air from contacting
the fluid.
Fig. 18: Brake Lines
Brake Lines
• Brake lines are made of steel and may be wrapped
with wire armour to protect them from flying
debris underneath.
• A short flexible brake hose or flex hose connects
the steel brake lines to the wheel cylinders or
calipers (Fig.18).
• Another type of end is the block or banjo fitting
(Fig.18). It is used with soft metal washers on each
side. A hollow bolt allows fluid to flow from the
hose into the caliper.
Power Brakes
• Most vehicles have power-assisted braking or
power brakes.
• The assist is provided by either hydraulic brake
booster or a vacuum brake booster.
• Both types allow normal (unassisted) braking
if the engine is off or if the booster fails.
However, the driver must then push harder on
the brake pedal.
Fig. 19:Power Brakes principle
BASIC VACUUM-BOOSTER OPERATION
• It has a cylinder that contains a piston or diaphragm (fig.19
& 20)
• When the brake pedal is released, the piston is vacuum-
suspended.
• The vacuum is supplied by a connection to the engine
intake manifold or by a vacuum pump.
• Depressing the brake pedal causes atmospheric pressure
to build up on one side of the piston.
• The piston then moves to the left, pushing the master-
cylinder pushrod into the master cylinder.
• The light force the driver applies to the brake-pedal
pushrod is increased by the "power assist" of the
atmospheric pressure.
Fig.20: Vacuum Brake Booster
Fig. 21:Hydraulic Brake Booster
Fig. 22:Hydraulic Brake Booster
Antilock Braking System (ABS)
• Tyres skid when they slow or decelerate faster than the
vehicle.
• ABS helps prevent skidding by keeping the brakes from
locking.
• antilock-braking system (ABS) comes into effect during
hard or severe braking.
• The system allows the brakes to apply until the tyres
are almost starting to skid.
• Then the anti lock-braking system can vary or modulate
the hydraulic pressure to the brake at each wheel.
ABS Components
• Basic components that are common to all ABS
Systems include:
– Wheel speed sensors
– Electronic control module
– ABS warning light
– Hydraulic modulator assembly with electrically
operated solenoid valves.
– Some systems have electric pump and accumulator
to generate hydraulic pressure for power assist as
well as ABS.
ABS Configurations
• All ABS systems keep track of wheel deceleration rates.
• Different systems use different number of sensors
depending on how the system is configured. These
configurations are (fig. 23):
– Four channel ABS. Each wheel has its own wheel speed
sensor. Each wheel provides an input for separate hydraulic
control circuit.
– Three channel ABS. Uses three sensors – two for front
wheel and one for both rear wheels. Rear sensor reads
combined or average speed of rear wheels
– Single channel ABS. Uses one sensor for rear wheels mostly
on rear wheel drive pick-ups and vans since vehicle loading
affects rear wheel traction.
Fig. 23: ABS Configurations
Integral and Non-Integral ABS
• Integral systems combine brake master cylinder
and ABS modulator, pump and accumulator
into one assembly (fig. 24). Do not have
vacuum booster for power assist but rely on
pressure generated by electric pump for assist.
• Non-integral systems have master cylinder and
vacuum power boost separate with hydraulic
modulator unit (fig. 25). Some have electric
pump for ABS braking but are not used during
normal power assist. They are cheaper and less
complex than integral systems.
Fig. 24: Integral ABS
Fig. 25: Non-Integral ABS
Operation of Antilock Braking System
• The brake lines from the master cylinder connect to a
hydraulic unit or actuator.
• Lines from the actuator connect to the wheel brakes.
• The actuator is controlled by the ABS control module.
• Wheel-speed sensors at each wheel continuously send
wheel-speed information to the ABS control module.
There is no ABS action until the stoplight switch signals
the control module that the brake pedal has been
depressed.
• When the control module senses a rapid drop in wheel
speed, it signals the actuator directly or through a relay to
adjust or modulate the brake pressure to that wheel.
• This prevents wheel lockup.
Fig.26: ABS Inputs and Outputs
Wheel Speed Sensors
• Figure 27 & 28 show typical front, rear wheel
and diff. speed sensors.
• A toothed ring or tone ring rotates with the
wheel.
• The sensor sends voltage signals to the ABS
control module.
• The module counts the number of voltage
signals per second. This indicates how fast the
wheel is turning.
Fig. 27: Wheel Speed Sensor Locations
Speed Sensor Construction & Operation
• The sensor pick-up has a magnetic core surrounded by coil
windings. As the wheel turns, teeth on the sensor ring
move through the pick-up’s magnetic field. The strength of
the magnetic field changes and an alternating current is
induced in the pick-up’s windings.
• The number of voltage pulses per second induced in the
pick-up windings is proportional to the wheel speed.
• Thus the frequency of the voltage signal is proportional to
wheel speed.
• The analogue signals are sent to the ABS control module
where they are changed into digital signals for processing.
Sensor Air Gap and Precautions
• The air gap is critical to operation of the sensor. A
close gap is necessary to produce a strong and reliable
signal.
• However metal to metal contact must be avoided to
prevent damage of both sensor and ring.
• The gap must not be too wide or a weak or erratic
signal may result.
• The sensors are magnetic, thus they can attract
metallic particles which can accumulate at the end of
the sensor and reduce its ability to produce an
accurate signal.
Sensor Air Gap and Precautions
• Removing the sensor and cleaning the tip may
be necessary if it is producing a poor signal.
• Sensor reading are affected by size of tyres
and wheels. A tyre with an overall larger
diameter would give a slower reading than
one with a smaller diameter.
• ABS is calibrated to a specific tyre size. A
different size or aspect ratio could have an
adverse effect on the operation of the ABS.
Fig. 28: Diff. Wheel Speed Sensor
Hydraulic Modulator
• Contains solenoid valves for each brake circuit.
Number depends on system and application. Some
use a pair of on/off solenoids while others use a single
valve that can operate in more than one position.
• Solenoid valves are used to open and close passage
ways between the master cylinder and individual
brake circuits.
• By opening or closing modulator valves, brake
pressure within any given circuit can be held, released
and reapplied to prevent lock-up during hard braking
(fig. 29 & 30).
•
Fig. 29: Hydraulic Modulator Operation –
Pressure Maintain
Fig. 30: Hydraulic Modulator Operation – Pressure
Release and Application
ABS Warning Lamp
• ABS systems have an indicator lamp on the instrument panel
that warns a driver when a problem occurs with the system.
• It comes on when the ignition is turned on and goes out
when the engine starts.
• If it remains on or comes on while driving indicates a fault in
the system which requires diagnosis.
• The ABS is disabled when the light remains on but this does
not affect normal braking unless the brake warning light is
also on.
• The ABS warning light can be used for diagnosis to retrieve
flash codes.
• Other systems only allow codes to be retrieved using a scan
tool.
Drum Brake Trouble Diagnosis
1. Safety
• Some brake linings are may be made of asbestos. Ingesting asbestos
by breathing or swallowing can cause serious bodily harm.
• Never use an air nozzle to blow off dust off brakes.
• Never sand or grind brake linings or clean with a dry cloth or
compressed air.
• Use an approved vacuum with High Efficiency Particulate Air filter
(HEPA).
• Water dampened cloth can be used to wipe parts. Dispose cloth in
special container for hazardous materials.
• Wash hands after handling dusty brake parts and linings
• Always wear eye protection when working on vehicles with ABS.
Some systems have high hydraulic pressure even when ignition is off.
Follow procedures in the vehicle manual to open or service a
hydraulic system
Motor Pump and Accumulator
• A high pressure electric pump is used in some ABS
systems to generate pressure for power assist in
normal braking and reapplication during ABS braking.
• The motor is energised via a relay that is switched on
and off by the ABS control module.
• The fluid pressure that is generated is stored in the
accumulator.
• The accumulator consists of a pressure storage
chamber filled with nitrogen gas. A thick rubber
diaphragm separates the fluid and the gas.
• As the fluid is pumped it compresses the gas and
stores the pressure.
Drum Brake Trouble Diagnosis
2. Diagnosing Drum Brake Troubles
• Friction and heat cause brake parts to wear.
• Warning lights and fluid level and wear indicators help
alert the driver to the need for brake service.
• Improper operation and other driver complaints
indicate the need for brake inspection and testing.
• Correcting a brake problem early helps prevent
damage to other parts and possible brake failure.
• A complaint of faulty braking should be immediately
diagnosed to determine its cause
Fig. 31: Drum Defects that Require
Drum Service
Disc Brake Trouble Diagnosis
• Sometimes troubles in disc brakes can be
similar to those in drum brakes.
• Disc brakes have fewer parts which makes
diagnosis different.
• All four wheel disc brakes have some troubles
that are not found in four wheel drum brakes.
Fig. 32: Disc Brake Run out
Fig 33: Disc Brake Linings Wear
Power Brake Trouble Diagnosis
• A quick method of power brake operation
check is to pump the pedal several times with
the engine off. This uses up any stored vacuum
or hydraulic pressure.
• Then depress the pedal and start the engine. If
the booster is operating properly the pedal will
fall away or drop slightly. If the booster is not
operating properly, refer to the power brake
trouble diagnosis chart in the vehicle manual.
ABS Trouble Diagnosis
• A vehicle with ABS can have same brake troubles as
described earlier.
• An ABS trouble is the failure to prevent wheel lock up.
• Also wrong size especially over size tyres can prevent
normal ABS operation.
• Vehicles with ABS have two instrument panel indicator
lights – ANTILOCK and BRAKE.
• When ignition is on both lights illuminate and when
engine is running both lights should be off.
• Any other sequence of light actions may indicate
trouble.
ABS Trouble Diagnosis
• Some diagnostic procedure require the use of
a breakout box and a pressure gauge.
• Breakout box connects to ABS wiring harness
while pressure gauge checks pressure
developed by hydraulic unit.
Brake Efficiency and Testing
• The total retarding force acting on a vehicle
includes braking force, tyre drag, friction losses in
the wheel bearings and the transmission system,
the force exerted by the vehicle to drive the
engine, the effect of road gradient and wind
resistance. If all these forces together so happen
to equal the weight of the vehicle, then it would
slow down or decelerate at the rate of
approximately 9.8 metres per second per second
(9.8 m/s2)
• In automobile practice, it is customary to refer
to the braking force relative to the weight of
the vehicle in terms of braking efficiency, so
that a 0.5g deceleration is conveniently
expressed as a 50 per cent braking efficiency.
Fig. 34: Testing Brake Efficiency
V-tube decelerometer
Pendulum decelerometer
Platform brake-testing machine Roller brake-testing machine
Fig. 35: Brake Drum Wear
Fig. 36: Rotor Wear
Brake Drum and Rotor Damage
• Scoring
• Cracking
• Heat checking
• Hard or chill spots
Drum Brake and Rotor Distortion
Drums
• Bell mouth drums
• Out of round drums
• Eccentric drums
Rotors
• Lateral run out
• Lack of parallelism
Fig. 37: Bellmouth and Out of Round Drums
Fig. 38: Eccentric
Fig. 39: Rotor Distortions
