The Endocrine System

DR. JIMOH M.A.

DEPARTMENT OF PLANT BIOLOGY
OUTLINES
• Introduction
• Glands
• Roles of Glands
• Properties of Hormones
• Links to Nervous System
• Components of Endocrine System
• Functions of Endocrine System
• Common Hormones and Their Roles
• Endocrine Disorders
• Mechanism of Action of Hormones
• Conclusion
INTRODUCTION
• The endocrine system is a system of glands called
endocrine glands.

• This system of glands are present in the body of

animals.
• They secrete and produce some chemical
substances called hormones, directly into the
blood stream, without passing through a duct.
• Hence, they are also referred to as ductless glands.
INTRODUCTION Contd.
All hormones produced in the body of vertebrates
belong one of the following groups:

1. Peptides and proteins;

2. Derivatives of amines such as tyrosine;
3. Steroids;
4. Fatty acids.
GLANDS
• A gland is an internal structure in animals which
secretes a specific chemical substance. There are two
types of glands:

• Exocrine glands – They secrete substances they produce into a duct

e.g. sweat gland, which secretes sweat into sweat ducts located
beneath the skin that lead to the surface of skin where sweat is
discharged;

• Endocrine glands – They secrete chemical substances called

hormones. They are referred to as ductless glands since hormones they
secrete go directly into the bloodstream. They are supplied very much
with blood into which they secrete the hormones. They possess
relatively large number and supply of blood vessels for transport of the
hormones.
ROLES OF GLANDS
• It is important to note that some glands play both
endocrine and exocrine functions. An example is the
pancreas which, as endocrine gland, secretes insulin
and glucagon as hormones, while as exocrine gland, it
secretes pancreatic juice, which contains some
digestive enzymes, into the pancreatic duct that leads
into the small intestine.

• In this way, as chemical messengers, they regulate

growth, metabolic activities as well as sexual
development and functions in the body of organisms.
• The endocrine system is a highly specialized and
interconnected system of glands and organs that
regulate numerous physiological processes through the
secretion of their respective hormones.

• These serve as chemical messengers that travel

through the bloodstream to target tissues and organs,
orchestrating growth, metabolism, reproduction, and
homeostasis.
PROPERTIES OF HORMONES
• They travel or are transported in the blood;
• They have their effects at sites different from the site
where they are made, called the target, hence they are
referred to as messenger substances;
• They fit precisely into receptor molecules in the target,
like a key in a lock. As such, hormones are specific for
given particular targets;
• They are small soluble organic molecule;
• They are effective even in low concentrations.
LINK TO NERVOUS SYSTEM
• The endocrine system works in a coordinated
manner with the nervous system to maintain the
homeostatic state of the body of the organism.

• In actual fact, the hypothalamus in the brain, a

chief endocrine gland, located in the brain, is an
important link between these two systems.
 NERVOUS CONTROL HORMONAL CONTROL
1. Involves electrical and Involves transmission of
chemical transmission chemical substances, called
through nerve impulses hormones, through the blood
and chemicals across
synapses
2. Involves rapid A relatively slower transmission,
transmission and as they are generally slow-
responses of impulses acting, except adrenalin
3. Brings about short-term Often brings about and effects
changes long-term changes

4. Its pathway is specific, The pathway of action is not

through nerve cells specific, as only the target is
specific
5. Responses are often very Responses may be widespread,
localized, for example in for example in body growth
one muscle
• Despite their obvious differences, the two systems play
principal roles in the coordination and control of many
vital physiological activities taking place in organisms.

• They bring about the release of chemical substances

involved in communication between and among cells.

• They originated and develop side-by-side as the needs

of communication among cells of the organism arise.
 Major Components of the Endocrine
System
• A summary of the major components of the
endocrine system, comprising the concerned gland,
its location as well as its function and roles are
given below:
Hypothalamus

 Location: Base of the brain, above the pituitary gland.

 Function: Acts as a link between the nervous and

endocrine systems.

 Major Roles:
 Regulates body temperature, thirst, hunger, and circadian rhythms.

 Produces releasing and inhibiting hormones that control the pituitary

gland.
Pituitary Gland

 Location: Base of the brain, beneath the hypothalamus.

 Structure: Divided into the anterior and posterior lobes.

 Functions:
 Anterior Lobe: Produces hormones such as growth hormone (GH),
prolactin, and adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH).
 Posterior Lobe: Stores and releases oxytocin and antidiuretic hormone
(ADH).
Pineal Gland
• Location: Deep in the brain.

• Function: Produces melatonin, which regulates

sleep-wake cycles.
Thyroid Gland
• Location: Front of the neck.

• Function: Produces thyroid hormones (T3 and T4)

that regulate metabolism, energy production, and
growth.
T3 is Triiodothyronine hormone
T4 is Thyroxine hormone
Parathyroid Glands
• Location: Behind the thyroid gland
(four small glands).

• Function: Regulate calcium levels in the blood and

bones through parathyroid hormone (PTH).
Adrenal Glands

 Location: Atop each kidney.

 Structure and Functions:

 Adrenal Cortex: Produces cortisol (stress response), aldosterone
(regulates sodium and potassium), and androgens.
 Adrenal Medulla: Produces adrenaline (epinephrine) and noradrenaline
(norepinephrine) for fight-or-flight responses.
Pancreas

 Location: Behind the stomach (in the gastro-intestinal

tract, GIT).

 Functions:
 Endocrine: Produces insulin and glucagon to regulate blood sugar levels.
 Exocrine: Produces digestive enzymes.
The reproductive Organs i.e. the gonads
(Ovaries and Testes)
• Ovaries (in the female organism): produce estrogen
and progesterone, which regulate menstrual cycles
and support pregnancy.

• Testes (in the male organism): produce

testosterone, responsible for male secondary
sexual characteristics and sperm production.
Thymus
• Location: Upper chest, behind the sternum.

• Function: Produces thymosin, which is crucial for

the development of T-cells (immune response).
Functions of the Endocrine System
1. Regulation of Metabolism
• Hormones like thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3)
influence the rate of energy use.
• Insulin and glucagon regulate blood glucose levels.

2. Growth and Development

• Growth hormone (GH) from the anterior pituitary influences
physical development.
• Sex hormones (estrogen, progesterone, and testosterone)
drive sexual maturation and reproduction.
3. Reproductive Functions
• Estrogen and progesterone regulate the menstrual cycle and
pregnancy.
• Testosterone controls sperm production and secondary sexual
characteristics in males.

4. Response to Stress
• Cortisol helps the body adapt to stress by mobilizing energy
reserves.
• Adrenaline and noradrenaline prepare the body for immediate
action (fight-or-flight).
5. Homeostasis

• Maintains internal balance, such as electrolyte levels,

water balance, and blood pressure.

• Hormones like aldosterone and ADH are critical for water

and salt balance.
 Common Hormones and Their Roles

Hormone Source Function

Insulin Pancreas Lowers blood sugar levels
Glucagon Pancreas Raises blood sugar levels

Cortisol Adrenal Cortex Stress response, metabolism

Thyroxine (T4) Thyroid Regulates metabolism

Growth Hormone (GH) Anterior Pituitary Stimulates growth

Oxytocin Posterior Pituitary Promotes labor and bonding

Estrogen Ovaries Female reproductive system

regulation
Testosterone Testes Male reproductive system
regulation
 Some Human Body Disorders Mediated by
the Endocrine Glands
1. Diabetes Mellitus
• Cause: Insufficient insulin production or action.
• Types: Type 1 (autoimmune) and Type 2 (insulin resistance).

2. Thyroid Disorders
• Hypothyroidism: Low thyroid hormone levels, causing
fatigue and weight gain.

• Hyperthyroidism: Excess thyroid hormone, leading to

weight loss and irritability.
3. Cushing’s Syndrome
• Cause: Overproduction of cortisol.

• Symptoms: Weight gain, high blood pressure, and thin

skin.

4. Addison’s Disease
• Cause: Insufficient adrenal hormone production.

• Symptoms: Fatigue, weight loss, and low blood pressure

5. Polycystic Ovary Syndrome (PCOS)
• Cause: Hormonal imbalance affecting ovaries.

• Symptoms: Irregular periods, infertility, and excess

androgen.

6. Gigantism and Dwarfism

• Gigantism: Excess growth hormone during childhood.

• Dwarfism: Deficiency of growth hormone.

 Mechanism of the Action of Hormones
As hormones are released for a particular function, the
mechanisms controlling both its release and function by
glands are as follows:

1. Presence of a specific metabolite in the blood: e.g.

presence of excess glucose in the blood, which
necessitates a mop up action, causes the release of
insulin from the pancreas in order to lower the blood
glucose level, so as to maintain the desirable glucose
level at all times;
2. Presence of another hormone in the blood: e.g.
presence of stimulating hormones from the anterior
pituitary gland which can cause the release of other
hormones from other glands in the body;

3. Stimulation by neurons from the autonomic nervous

system: e.g. adrenaline and noradrenaline which are
released from the cells of the adrenal medulla by the
arrival of nerve impulses, when there are situations of
anxiety, stress and danger.
• The endocrine system is regulated by the Feedback
Control Mechanism (FCB). An analogy for this is the
thermostat in a refrigerator or the air-conditioning unit.

• For instance, in the hormones that are regulated by the

pituitary gland, a signal is sent from the hypothalamus
to the pituitary gland in the form of a “releasing
hormone” which stimulates the gland to secrete a
“stimulating hormone” into circulation.

• When the level of this hormone in the target gland rises

in the circulation, the hypothalamus and the pituitary
glands shut down the secretion of the releasing
hormone and the stimulating hormone.
• Hormones which are released by the presence of
another circulating hormone, as illustrated above, do so
using the “cascade effect”.

• Such hormones are under the control of the

hypothalamus and the pituitary glands.

• The final response often involves the secretion of three

separate hormones.

• This is the instance in the control of the conversion of

glucose to glycogen in order to maintain the
concentration of blood glucose level.
 CONCLUSION
• The endocrine system is essential for maintaining the
body’s equilibrium.

• Disruptions to this system can lead to significant health

issues, emphasizing the need for proper hormonal
balance.

• Advances in endocrinology have paved the way for

effective treatments, enabling individuals to manage
conditions and lead healthy lives.