PowerPoint® Lecture Slides

prepared by
Meg Flemming
Austin Community College

CHAPTER 11
The
Cardiovascular
System: Blood
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Chapter 11 Learning Outcomes
• 11-1
• Describe the components and major functions of blood, and list the
physical characteristics of blood.
• 11-2
• Describe the composition and functions of plasma.
• 11-3
• List the characteristics and functions of red blood cells, describe
the structure and function of hemoglobin, indicate how red blood
cell components are recycled, and explain erythropoiesis.
• 11-4
• Discuss the factors that determine a person's blood type, and
explain why blood typing is important.

© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Chapter 11 Learning Outcomes
• 11-5
• Categorize the various white blood cells on the basis of their
structures and functions, and discuss the factors that regulate their
production.
• 11-6
• Describe the structure, function, and production of platelets.
• 11-7
• Describe the mechanisms that control blood loss after an injury.

© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Introduction to the Cardiovascular System
(Introduction)
• Includes heart, blood vessels, and blood

• Major transportation system for:

• Substances we need from the external environment

• Substances we need to eliminate through wastes

• Substances we synthesize that need delivery to other

organs

© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Functions of Blood (11-1)

1. Transports dissolved gases, nutrients, hormones,

and metabolic wastes

2. Regulates pH and ion makeup of interstitial fluids

3. Restricts fluid loss at injury sites

4. Defends against toxins and pathogens

5. Stabilizes body temperature

© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Composition of Blood (11-1)

• A liquid connective tissue made of plasma and

formed elements
• Temperature is 38oC, a little above body temperature

• Blood is five times more viscous than water

• Viscosity refers to thickness, stickiness

• Caused by plasma proteins, formed elements

• pH is slightly alkaline in a range of 7.35–7.45

© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Blood Collection and Analysis (11-1)

• Whole blood is usually collected from veins

• Called venipuncture

• Common site is median cubital vein

• Can also be collected from peripheral capillary

• A drop from fingertip or earlobe

• Occasionally collected from arterial puncture

• To evaluate gas exchange efficiency in lung function

© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Checkpoint (11-1)

1. List five major functions of blood.

2. What two components make up whole blood?

3. Why is venipuncture a common technique for

obtaining a blood sample?

© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Plasma (11-2)

• Along with interstitial fluid, makes up most of ECF

• Contains:
• Plasma proteins

• Hormones

• Nutrients

• Gases

• Water

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 Three Major Types of Plasma Proteins (11-2)

1. Albumins
• Most abundant
• Maintains osmotic pressure of plasma

2. Globulins
• Act as transport proteins and antibodies

3. Fibrinogen
• Functions in blood clotting, converting to fibrin

© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Plasma Proteins (11-2)

• Plasma, minus the clotting proteins like fibrinogen,

is called serum
• 90 percent of plasma proteins are synthesized by
liver
• Liver disorders can result in altered blood
composition and function

© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Figure 11-1 The Composition of Whole Blood

SPOTLIGHT
FIGURE 11-1

The Composition of Whole Blood

Fibrinogen
(fī-BRIN-ō-jen) functions
Plasma Proteins Albumins

A Fluid Connective Tissue (al-BŪ-minz) constitute in clotting, and normally

PLASMA
roughly 60% of the plasma accounts for roughly 4% of
Blood is a fluid connective tissue Plasma proteins are in proteins. As the most plasma proteins. Under certain
with a unique composition. solution rather than forming abundant plasma proteins, conditions, fibrinogen molecules
insoluble fibers like those in they are major contributors interact, forming large, insoluble
other connective tissues, to the osmotic pressure Globulins strands of fibrin (FĪ-brin) that
such as loose connective of plasma. (GLOB-ū-linz) account for form the basic framework
Plasma, the matrix of blood, makes tissue or cartilage. approximately 35% of the for a blood clot.
up about 55% of the volume of proteins in plasma. Important
whole blood. plasma globulins include antibodies
and transport globulins. Antibodies,
Plasma also contains
also called immunoglobulins
enzymes and hormones
(i-mū-nō-GLOB-ū-linz), attack foreign whose concentrations
proteins and pathogens. Transport vary widely.
globulins bind small ions,

7% hormones, and other

compounds.
Organic
Organic
Nutrients: Organic
Other Solutes nutrients are used for ATP
Wastes: Waste
Electrolytes: products are carried to sites
Other solutes are generally production, growth, and
Normal extracellular ion of breakdown or excretion.
present in concentrations similar maintenance of cells. This
to those in the interstitial fluids. composition is essential for Examples of organic wastes
category includes lipids (fatty
Plasma However, because blood is a acids, cholesterol, glycerides),
vital cellular activities. The include urea, uric acid,
Plasma Proteins transport medium there may be carbohydrates (primarily major plasma electrolytes are creatinine, bilirubin,
1% differences in nutrient and waste
product concentrations between glucose), amino acids, Na+, K+, Ca2+, Mg2+, Cl–, and ammonium
ions.
55% and vitamins. HCO3–, HPO4–, and
Other Solutes arterial blood and venous blood.
(Range: 46– SO42–.
63%)
Water 92%
consists of

Formed Platelets
Elements Platelets
< .1% Platelets are small, membrane-
bound cell fragments that contain
enzymes and other substances
45% White Blood Cells important to clotting.
(Range: 37–54%)
Red Blood Cells White Blood Cells
< .1%
White blood cells (WBCs),
Formed elements are blood or leukocytes (LOO-k -sīts;
cells and cell fragments that are leukos, white + -cyte, cell),
participate in the body’s Neutrophils Basophils
The hematocrit suspended in plasma. defense mechanisms. There
(he-MAT- -krit) is the 99.9% are five classes of leukocytes. Eosinophils
Lymphocytes
Monocytes
percentage of whole
blood volume contributed
by formed elements. Red Blood Cells

Red blood cells (RBCs), or

FORMED
erythrocytes (e-RITH-rō-sits;
erythros, red + -cyte, cell), are
the most abundant blood cells.

ELEMENTS

© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Figure 11-1a The Composition of Whole Blood

SPOTLIGHT
FIGURE 11-1

The Composition of Whole Blood

A Fluid Connective Tissue

PLASMA
Blood is a fluid connective tissue with a
unique composition. It consists of a matrix
called plasma (PLAZ-muh) and formed
elements (cells and cell fragments). The term
Plasma, the matrix of blood, makes up about 55% of the
whole blood refers to the combination of
volume of whole blood. In many respects, the
plasma and the formed elements together. composition of plasma resembles that of interstitial
The cardiovascular system of an adult male fluid. This similarity exists because water, ions, and
contains 5–6 liters (5.3–6.4 quarts) of whole small solutes are continuously exchanged between
blood; that of an adult female contains 4–5 plasma and interstitial fluids across the walls of
capillaries. The primary differences between plasma and
liters (4.2–5.3 quarts). The sex differences in interstitial fluid involve (1) the levels of respiratory gases
blood volume primarily (oxygen and carbon dioxide, due to the respiratory
reflect differences in activities of tissue cells), and (2) the concentrations and 7%
average body size. types of dissolved proteins (because plasma proteins
cannot cross capillary walls).

Plasma Plasma Proteins

1%
Other Solutes
55%
(Range: 46–63%)
Water
92%
consists of

Formed Elements Platelets

< .1%
45% White Blood Cells
(Range: 37–54%)
Red Blood Cells
< .1%
Formed elements are blood cells and cell
fragments that are suspended in plasma. These
The hematocrit elements account for about 45% of the volume of
whole blood. Three types of formed elements exist:
(he-MAT-ō-krit) is the
platelets, white blood cells, and red blood cells. 99.9%
percentage of whole Formed elements are produced through the
blood volume contributed process of hemopoiesis (hēm-ō-poy-Ē-sis). Two
by formed elements. The populations of stem cells—myeloid stem cells and
normal hematocrit, or packed cell lymphoid stem cells—are responsible for the
volume (PCV), in adult males is 46 and in production of formed elements.

FORMED
adult females is 42. The sex difference in
hematocrit primarily reflects the fact that
androgens (male hormones) stimulate red
blood cell production, whereas estrogens

ELEMENTS
(female hormones) do not.

© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Figure 11-1-1 The Composition of Whole Blood
A Fluid Connective Tissue
Blood is a fluid connective tissue with a
unique composition. It consists of a matrix
called plasma (PLAZ-muh) and formed
elements (cells and cell fragments). The term
whole blood refers to the combination of
PLASMA
Plasma, the matrix of blood, makes up about 55% of the
plasma and the formed elements together. volume of whole blood. In many respects, the
The cardiovascular system of an adult male composition of plasma resembles that of interstitial
contains 5–6 liters (5.3–6.4 quarts) of whole fluid. This similarity exists because water, ions, and
blood; that of an adult female contains 4–5 small solutes are continuously exchanged between
liters (4.2–5.3 quarts). The sex differences in plasma and interstitial fluids across the walls of
blood volume primarily capillaries. The primary differences between plasma and
reflect differences in
interstitial fluid involve (1) the levels of respiratory gases
average body size.
(oxygen and carbon dioxide, due to the respiratory 7%
activities of tissue cells), and (2) the concentrations and
types of dissolved proteins (because plasma proteins
cannot cross capillary walls).

Plasma Plasma Proteins

1%
55%
Other Solutes
(Range: 46–63%)
Water
92%
consists of

© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Figure 11-1-2 The Composition of Whole Blood

consists of

Formed
Elements Platelets
< .1%
45% White Blood Cells
(Range: 37–54%)
Red Blood Cells
< .1%
Formed elements are blood cells and cell
fragments that are suspended in plasma. These
elements account for about 45% of the volume of
The hematocrit
(he-MAT-ō-krit) is the
whole blood. Three types of formed elements exist:
platelets, white blood cells, and red blood cells. 99.9%
percentage of whole Formed elements are produced through the
blood volume contributed process of hemopoiesis (hēm-ō-poy-Ē-sis). Two
by formed elements. The populations of stem cells—myeloid stem cells and
lymphoid stem cells—are responsible for the
normal hematocrit, or packed cell
production of formed elements.
volume (PCV), in adult males is 46 and in

FORMED
adult females is 42. The sex difference in
hematocrit primarily reflects the fact that
androgens (male hormones) stimulate red

ELEMENTS
blood cell production, whereas estrogens
(female hormones) do not.

© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Figure 11-1 The Composition of Whole Blood (3–4)

Fibrinogen
Albumins (fī-BRIN-ō-jen) functions
Plasma Proteins
(al-BŪ-minz) consti in clotting, and normally
Plasma proteins are in solution rather tute roughly 60% of the accounts for roughly 4% of
than forming insoluble fibers like those plasma proteins. As the plasma proteins. Under certain
in other connective tissues, such as most abundant plasma conditions, fibrinogen molecules
loose connective tissue or cartilage. proteins, they are major interact, forming large, insoluble
On average, each 100 mL of plasma Globulins
contributors to the strands of fibrin (FĪ-brin) that
contains 7.6 g of protein, almost five (GLOB-ū-linz) account for
osmotic pressure form the basic framework
times the concentration in interstitial approximately 35% of the
of plasma. for a blood clot.
fluid.The large size and globular proteins in plasma. Important
shapes of most blood proteins prevent plasma globulins include antibodies
them from crossing capillary walls, so and transport globulins. Antibodies,
they remain trapped within the also called immunoglobulins Plasma also contains
bloodstream. The liver synthesizes and (i-mū-nō-GLOB-ū-linz), attack foreign enzymes and hormones
releases more than 90% of the plasma whose concentrations
proteins and pathogens. Trans-
proteins, including all albumins and vary widely.
port globulins bind small ions,
fibrinogen, most globulins, and various hormones, and other
prohormones.
compounds.
Organic
Organic
Nutrients: Organic
Other Solutes nutrients are used for ATP
Wastes: Waste prod-
Electrolytes:
ucts are carried to sites of
Other solutes are generally present in production, growth, and Normal extracellular ion breakdown or excretion.
concentrations similar to those in the maintenance of cells. This
composition is essential for Examples of organic wastes
interstitial fluids. However, because blood category includes lipids (fatty
is a transport medium there may be vital cellular activities. The include urea, uric acid,
acids, cholesterol, glycerides),
differences in nutrient and waste product major plasma electrolytes are creatinine, bilirubin,
carbohydrates (primarily
concentrations between arterial blood and Na+, K+, Ca2+, Mg2+, Cl–, and ammonium
glucose), amino acids,
venous blood. HCO3–, HPO4–, and ions.
and vitamins.
SO42–.

© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Figure 11-1 The Composition of Whole Blood (5–7)

Platelets
Platelets are small, membrane-bound cell
fragments that contain enzymes and other
substances important to clotting.

White Blood Cells

White blood cells (WBCs), or leuko-
cytes (LOO-kō-sīts; leukos, white + -cyte,
cell), participate in the body’s defense
mechanisms. There are five classes of
leukocytes, each with slightly different Neutrophils Basophils
functions that will be explored later in the
Lymphocytes
chapter.
Eosinophils Monocytes

Red Blood Cells

Red blood cells (RBCs), or erythrocytes
(e-RITH-rō-sits; erythros, red + -cyte, cell),
are the most abundant blood cells. These
specialized cells are essential for the
transport of oxygen in the blood.

© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Checkpoint (11-2)

4. List the three major types of plasma proteins.

5. What would be the effects of a decrease in the

amount of plasma proteins?

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 Erythrocytes or Red Blood Cells (11-3)

• RBCs
• Make up 99.9 percent of formed elements
• Measured in red blood cell count, cells/µL
• Men have 5.4 million/µL
• Women have 4.8 million/µL

• Measured as a percentage of whole blood

• Hematocrit in men is 46 percent
• In women, it's 42 percent

• Contain pigment molecule hemoglobin

• Transports oxygen and carbon dioxide

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 Structure of RBCs (11-3)

• Unique biconcave shape provides advantages

• Increased surface area increases rate of diffusion

• Increased flexibility to squeeze through narrow

capillaries

• During RBC formation organelles are lost

• Cannot go through cell division

• Can only rely on glucose from plasma for energy

© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Figure 11-2 The Anatomy of Red Blood Cells.

0.45–1.16 µm 2.31–2.85 µm

7.2–8.4 µm
Blood smear LM x 477 RBCs Colorized SEM x 2100
When viewed in a standard The three-dimensional shape A sectional view of a mature RBC,
blood smear, RBCs appear of RBCs. showing the normal ranges for its
as two-dimensional objects, dimensions.
because they are flattened
against the surface of the
slide.

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 Hemoglobin Structure (11-3)

• Hb structure
• 95 percent of all RBC intracellular proteins

• Transports oxygen and carbon dioxide

• Composed of two pairs of globular proteins, called

subunits
• Each subunit contains heme, with an iron atom

• Oxygen binds to heme, carbon dioxide binds to the

globular subunits

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 Hemoglobin Function (11-3)

• O2–heme bond is fairly weak

• High plasma O2

• Causes hemoglobin to gain O2 until saturated

• Occurs as blood circulates through lung capillaries

• Low plasma O2 and high CO2

• Causes hemoglobin to release O2

• Occurs as blood circulates through systemic capillaries

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 Anemia (11-3)

• A reduction in oxygen-carrying capacity

• Caused by:
• Low hematocrit

• Low hemoglobin content in RBCs

• Symptoms include:
• Muscle fatigue and weakness

• Lack of energy in general

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 RBC Life Span and Circulation (11-3)

• RBCs are exposed to stresses of friction and wear

and tear
• Move through small capillaries

• Bounce against walls of blood vessels

• Life span is about 120 days

• About 1 percent of all RBCs are replaced each day

• About 3 million new RBCs enter circulation per second

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 Hemoglobin Recycling (11-3)

• If RBCs hemolyze in bloodstream, Hb breaks

down in blood
• Kidneys filter out Hb
• If a lot of RBCs rupture at once it causes
hemoglobinuria, indicated by reddish-brown urine

• Most RBCs are phagocytized in liver, spleen, and

bone marrow
• Hb components are recycled

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 Three Steps of Hemoglobin Recycling (11-3)

1. Globular proteins are broken into amino acids

2. Heme is stripped of iron, converted to biliverdin

• Biliverdin is converted to bilirubin, orange-yellow
• Liver absorbs bilirubin, it becomes part of bile
• If not put into bile, tissues become yellow, jaundiced

3. Iron can be stored or released into blood to bind

with transferrin

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 Figure 11-4 Recycling of Hemoglobin.

Events Occurring in Events Occurring in the

Macrophages Red Bone Marrow

RBC
Macrophages in liver,
spleen, and bone marrow formation

Fe2+ transported in the bloodstream

by transferrin
Amino acids
Heme
Average life span of
90% RBC is 120 days
Biliverdin
New RBCs
Old and released into
Bilirubin 10% damaged circulation
RBCs In the bloodstream,
the rupture of RBCs
is called hemolysis.
Bilirubin bound
to albumin in
Hemoglobin that is not
bloodstream
phagocytized breaks down,
and the polypeptide subunits
are eliminated in urine.

Liver Kidney

Bilirubin

Absorbed into the bloodstream

Urobilins

Excreted
in bile

Eliminated
Urobilins, in urine
Bilirubin stercobilins

Events Occurring in
Events Occurring Events Occurring in Eliminated the Kidney
in the Liver the Large Intestine in feces

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 Gender and Iron Reserves (11-3)

• Men have about 3.5 g of ionic Fe2+, 2.5 g of that is

in Hb, providing a reserve of 1 g
• Women have 2.4 g of Fe2+ and 1.9 g in Hb,
providing a reserve of only 0.5 g
• Women often require dietary supplements

• If low, iron deficiency anemia may appear

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 Stages of Erythropoiesis (11-3)

• Also called RBC formation

• Embryonic cells differentiate into multipotent stem cells,
called hemocytoblasts
• Erythropoiesis occurs in red bone marrow, or myeloid
tissue
• Hemocytoblasts produce myeloid stem cells
• Erythroblasts are immature and are synthesizing Hb
• When nucleus is shed they becomes reticulocytes
• Reticulocytes enter bloodstream to mature into RBCs
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 Figure 11-5 The Origins and Differentiation of RBCs, Platelets, and WBCs.

Red bone Hemocytoblasts

marrow

Multi-CSF

Myeloid Stem Cells Lymphoid Stem

Cells

Progenitor Cells
EPO GM-CSF

Blast Cells
EPO G-CSF M-CSF

Proerythroblast Myeloblast Monoblast Lymphoblast

Myelocytes
Erythroblast stages

Band Cells
Ejection of
nucleus
Megakaryocyte Promonocyte Prolymphocyte
Reticulocyte

Erythrocyte Platelets Basophil Eosinophil Neutrophil Monocyte Lymphocyte

Red Blood Cells Granulocytes Agranulocytes
(RBCs) White Blood Cells (WBCs)

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 Regulation of Erythropoiesis (11-3)

• Requires amino acids, iron, and B vitamins

• Stimulated by low tissue oxygen, called hypoxia

• Kidney hypoxia triggers release of erythropoietin

• When blood flow to kidney decreases

• When anemia occurs

• When oxygen content of air declines

• When damage to respiratory membrane occurs

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 Erythropoietin (11-3)

• EPO

• Target tissue is myeloid stem cell tissue

• Stimulates increase in cell division

• Speeds up rate of maturation of RBCs

• Essential for patients recovering from blood loss

• EPO infusions can help cancer patients recover from

RBC loss due to chemotherapy

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 Figure 11-6 The Role of EPO in the Control of Erythropoiesis.
Red bone marrow

Increased Stem
mitotic rate cells
Release of
erythropoietin
(EPO)

HOMEOSTASIS Erythroblasts
DISTURBED
Accelerated
Tissue oxygen
maturation
levels decline

Reticulocytes
HOMEOSTASIS
RESTORED
Tissue oxygen
levels rise
Improved
oxygen Increased
content numbers of
of blood circulating RBCs
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Checkpoint (11-3)

6. Describe hemoglobin.
7. What effect does dehydration have on an
individual's hematocrit?
8. In what way would a disease that causes liver
damage affect the level of bilirubin in the blood?
9. What effect does a reduction in oxygen supply to
the kidneys have on levels of erythropoietin in the
blood?
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 ABO Blood Types and Rh System (11-4)

• Based on antigen–antibody responses

• Antigens, or agglutinogens, are substances that can
trigger an immune response
• Your surface antigens are considered normal, not
foreign, and will not trigger an immune response
• Presence or absence of antigens on membrane of RBC
determines blood type
• Three major antigens are A, B, and Rh (or D)

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 Blood Types (11-4)

• Type A blood has antigen A only

• Type B blood has antigen B only

• Type AB blood had both A and B

• Type O blood has neither A nor B

• Rh positive notation indicates the presence of the

Rh antigen; Rh negative, the absence of it

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 Table 11-1 The Distribution of Blood Types in Selected Populations

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 Antibodies (11-4)

• Also called agglutinins

• Found in plasma, will not attack your own antigens on your

RBCs
• Will attack foreign antigens of different blood type
• Type A blood contains anti-B antibodies

• Type B blood contains anti-A antibodies

• Type AB blood contains neither antibodies

• Type O blood contains both antibodies

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 Cross-Reactions in Transfusions (11-4)

• Occur when antibodies in recipient react with their

specific antigen on donor's RBCs
• Cause agglutination or clumping of RBCs

• Referred to as cross-reactions or transfusion

reactions
• Checking blood types before transfusions ensures
compatibility

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 The Difference between ABO and Rh (11-4)

• Anti-A or anti-B antibodies

• Spontaneously develop during first six months of life

• No exposure to foreign antigens needed

• Anti-Rh antibodies in Rh negative person

• Do not develop unless individual is exposed to Rh
positive blood
• Exposure can occur accidentally, during a transfusion or
during childbirth

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 Figure 11-7a Blood Types and Cross-Reactions.

Type A Type B Type AB Type O

Type A blood has RBCs with Type B blood has RBCs with Type AB blood has RBCs Type O blood has RBCs
surface antigen A only. surface antigen B only. with both A and B surface lacking both A and B surface
antigens. antigens.
Surface Surface
antigen A antigen B

If you have Type A blood, your If you have Type B blood, If you have Type AB blood, If you have Type O blood,
plasma contains anti-B your plasma contains anti-A your plasma has neither your plasma contains both
antibodies, which will attack antibodies, which will attack anti-A nor anti-B antibodies. anti-A and anti-B
Type B surface antigens. Type A surface antigens. antibodies.

Blood type depends on the presence of surface antigens (agglutinogens) on RBC surfaces.
The plasma contains antibodies (agglutinins) that will react with foreign surface antigens.

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 Figure 11-7b Blood Types and Cross-Reactions.

RBC

Surface antigens Opposing antibodies Agglutination Hemolysis

(clumping)
In a cross-reaction, antibodies react with their target antigens causing agglutination and hemolysis of
the affected RBCs.

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 Figure 11-8 Blood Type Testing.

Blood
Anti-A Anti-B Anti-Rh
type

A+

B+

AB+

O-

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 Checkpoint (11-4)

10. Which blood type(s) can be safely transfused

into a person with Type AB blood?

11. Why can't a person with Type A blood safely

receive blood from a person with Type B blood?

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 Leukocytes or White Blood Cells (11-5)

• WBCs
• Larger than RBCs, involved in immune responses

• Contain nucleus and other organelles and lack

hemoglobin
• Granulocytes
• Neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils

• Agranulocytes
• Lymphocytes and monocytes

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 WBC Circulation and Movement (11-5)

• Four characteristics of WBCs

1. All are capable of amoeboid movement

2. All can migrate outside of bloodstream through

diapedesis

3. All are attracted to specific chemical stimuli, referred to

as positive chemotaxis, guiding them to pathogens

4. Neutrophils, eosinophils, and monocytes are

phagocytes

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 Types of WBCs (11-5)

• Neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils, and

monocytes
• Respond to any threat

• Are part of the nonspecific immune response

• Lymphocytes
• Respond to specific, individual pathogens

• Are responsible for specific immune response

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 Neutrophils (11-5)

• Make up 50–70 percent of circulating WBCs

• Have a dense, contorted multilobular nucleus

• Usually first WBC to arrive at injury

• Phagocytic, attacking and digesting bacteria

• Numbers increase during acute bacterial infections

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 Eosinophils (11-5)

• Make up 2–4 percent of circulating WBCs

• Similar in size to neutrophils

• Have deep red granules and a two-lobed nucleus

• Are phagocytic, but also attack through exocytosis

of toxic compounds
• Numbers increase during parasitic infection or
allergic reactions

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 Basophils (11-5)

• Somewhat smaller than neutrophils and

eosinophils
• Rare, less than 1 percent of circulating WBCs

• Granules contain:
• An anticoagulant, heparin

• Inflammatory compound, histamine

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 Monocytes (11-5)

• About twice the size of a RBC with a large, kidney

bean–shaped nucleus
• Usually 2–8 percent of circulating WBCs

• Migrate into tissues and become macrophages

• Aggressive phagocytes

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 Lymphocytes (11-5)

• Slightly larger than typical RBC with nucleus

taking up most of cell
• About 20–40 percent of circulating WBCs

• Large numbers are migrating in and out of tissues

and lymphatics
• Some attack foreign cells, others secrete
antibodies into circulation

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 The Differential WBC Count (11-5)

• Counting the numbers of the five unique WBCs of a stained blood

smear, called a differential count
• Change in numbers or percentages is diagnostic
• Leukopenia
• Is a reduction in total WBCs

• Leukocytosis
• Is excessive numbers of WBCs

• Leukemia
• Is an extremely high WBC count and is a cancer of blood-forming
tissues

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 WBC Formation (11-5)

• Derived from hemocytoblasts

• Regulated by colony-stimulating factors,

thymosins
• Produce lymphoid stem cells
• Differentiate into lymphocytes, called lymphopoiesis

• Migrate from bone marrow to lymphatic tissues

• Produce myeloid stem cells

• Differentiate into all other formed elements

© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Checkpoint (11-5)

12. Identify the five types of white blood cells.

13. Which type of white blood cell would you expect

to find in the greatest numbers in an infected cut?

14. Which type of cell would you find in elevated

numbers in a person producing large amounts of
circulating antibodies to combat a virus?

15. How do basophils respond during inflammation?

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 Table 11-2 A Review of the Formed Elements of the Blood (1 of 2)

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 Table 11-2 A Review of the Formed Elements of the Blood (2 of 2)

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 Platelets (11-6)

• Cell fragments involved in prevention of blood loss

• Hemocytoblasts differentiate into megakaryocytes

• Contain granules of chemicals

• Initiate clotting process and aid in closing tears in blood
vessels

• Normal count is 150,000–500,000/µL

• Low count is called thrombocytopenia

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 Checkpoint (11-6)

16. Explain the difference between platelets and

thrombocytes.

17. List the primary functions of platelets.

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 Three Phases of Hemostasis (11-7)

• Halts bleeding and prevents blood loss

1. Vascular phase

2. Platelet phase

3. Coagulation phase

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 The Vascular Phase (11-7)

• Blood vessels contain smooth muscle lined with

endothelium
• Damage causes decrease in vessel diameter
• Endothelial cells become sticky

• A vascular spasm of smooth muscle occurs

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 The Platelet Phase (11-7)

• Platelets attach to sticky endothelium and exposed

collagen
• More platelets arrive and stick to each other
forming a platelet plug
• May be enough to close a small break

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 The Coagulation Phase (11-7)

• Also called blood clotting

• A chemical cascade of reactions that leads to fibrinogen
being converted to fibrin
• Fibrin mesh grows, trapping cells and more platelets
forming a blood clot

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 The Clotting Process (11-7)

• Requires clotting factors

• Calcium ions, vitamin K and 11 different plasma proteins

• Proteins are converted from inactive proenzymes to

active enzymes involved in reactions

• Cascade event
• Step-by-step

• Product of first reaction is enzyme that activates

second reaction, etc.

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 The Extrinsic Pathway of Blood Clotting (11-7)

• Begins with damaged tissue releasing tissue

factor
• Combines with calcium and other clotting proteins

• Leads to formation of enzyme that can activate

Factor X

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 The Intrinsic Pathway of Blood Clotting (11-7)

• Begins with activation of proenzymes exposed to

collagen fibers at injury site
• Proceeds with help from platelet factor released
from aggregated platelets
• Several reactions occur, forming an enzyme that
can activate Factor X

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 The Common Pathway of Blood Clotting (11-7)

• Begins when enzymes from either extrinsic or

intrinsic pathways activate Factor X
• Forms enzyme prothrombinase

• Which converts prothrombin into thrombin

• Which converts fibrinogen into fibrin

• And stimulates tissue factor and platelet factors

• Positive feedback loop rapidly prevents blood loss

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 Figure 11-10 The Structure of a Blood Clot.

Trapped
RBC
Fibrin
network

Platelets

Blood clot containing trapped RBCs SEM x 2060

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 Figure 11-11 Events in the Coagulation Phase of Hemostasis.

Extrinsic Common Pathway Intrinsic

Pathway Pathway
Factor X

Factor X Factor X
Prothrombinase
activator activator

Prothrombin Thrombin
Multiple
Clotting clotting
Factor VII Fibrin Fibrinogen factors

Platelet
factor
Tissue
factors
Activated
proenzymes

Tissue
damage

Contracted smooth muscle cells

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 Clot Retraction and Removal (11-7)

• Fibrin network traps platelets and RBCs

• Platelets contract, pulling tissue close together in clot
retraction

• During repair of tissue, clot dissolves through

fibrinolysis
• Plasminogen is activated by thrombin and tissue
plasminogen activator (t-PA)
• Plasminogen produces plasmin, which digests clot

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 Checkpoint (11-7)

18. If a sample of red bone marrow has fewer than

normal numbers of megakaryocytes, what body
process would you expect to be impaired as a
result?
19. Two alternate pathways of interacting clotting
proteins lead to coagulation, or blood clotting.
How is each pathway initiated?
20. What are the effects of a vitamin K deficiency on
blood clotting (coagulation)?

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