Objective questions
• Explain parts of respiratory system
anatomicaly and functionaly?
• What is the main function of respiratory
system?
• Name the nasal bones?
Respiration
The term respiration means the exchange of gases between
body cells and the environment. This involves two main
processes.
Breathing (pulmonary ventilation). This is movement
of air into and out of the lungs.
Exchange of gases. This takes place:
• in the lungs: external respiration
• in the tissues: internal respiration.
Breathing
Breathing supplies oxygen to the alveoli, and eliminates
carbon dioxide.
Muscles of breathing
Expansion of the chest during inspiration occurs as a
result of muscular activity, partly voluntary and partly
involuntary. The main muscles used in normal quiet
breathing are the external intercostal muscles and the
diaphragm.
Intercostal muscles
There are 11 pairs of intercostal muscles occupying the
spaces between the 12 pairs of ribs. They are arranged in
two layers, the external and internal intercostal muscles
The external intercostal muscles These extend downwards
and forwards from the lower border of the rib
above to the upper border of the rib below. They are
involved in inspiration.
The internal intercostal muscles These extend downwards
and backwards from the lower border of the rib
above to the upper border of the rib below, crossing the
external intercostal muscle fibres at right angles.
Diaphragm
The diaphragm is a dome-shaped muscular structure
separating the thoracic and abdominal cavities.
Cycle of breathing
The average respiratory rate is 12–15 breaths per minute.
Each breath consists of three phases: inspiration, expiration
and pause.
Inspiration
Simultaneous contraction of the external intercostal
muscles and the diaphragm expands the thorax.
parietal pleura is firmly adhered to the diaphragm and
the inside of the ribcage, it is pulled outward along with
them.
The process of inspiration is active, as it needs energy
for muscle contraction. The negative pressure created in
the thoracic cavity aids venous return to the heart and is
known as the respiratory pump.
At rest, inspiration lasts about 2 seconds.
Expiration
Relaxation of the external intercostal muscles and the
diaphragm results in downward and inward movement
of the ribcage and elastic recoil of the lungs.
As this occurs, pressure inside the lungs rises and
expels air from the respiratory tract. At the end of
expiration, the lungs still contain some air, and are prevented
from complete collapse by the intact pleura. This
process is passive as it does not require the expenditure
of energy.
At rest, expiration lasts about 3 seconds, and after expiration
there is a pause before the next cycle begins.
Are u still awake?
If yes let’s do
• 1. what is respiration?
• Explain its types?
• 2. name breathing muscles and differentiate
with their function?
• 3. what is meant by cycle of breathing and
name its phases?
• 4. classify expiration and inspiration?
Physiological variables affecting breathing
Elasticity. Elasticity is the ability of the lung to return to
its normal shape after each breath.
Compliance. This is the stretch ability of the lungs, i.e. the
effort required to inflate the alveoli. The healthy lung is
very compliant, and inflates with very little effort. When
compliance is low the effort needed to inflate the lungs is
greater than normal, e.g. when insufficient surfactant is
present. Note that compliance and elasticity are opposing
forces.
Airway resistance. When this is increased, e.g. in broncho
constriction, more respiratory effort is required to
inflate the lungs.
Lung volumes and capacities.
In normal quiet breathing there are about 15 complete
respiratory cycles per minute. The lungs and the air
passages are never empty and, as the exchange of
gases takes place only across the walls of the alveolar
ducts and alveoli, the remaining capacity of the respiratory
passages is called the anatomical dead space (about
150 mL).
the sum of the vital capacity and the residual volume. It
cannot be directly measured in clinical tests because even
after forced expiration, the residual volume of air still
remains in the lungs.
Alveolar ventilation. This is the volume of air that
moves into and out of the alveoli per minute. It is equal
to the tidal volume minus the anatomical dead space,
multiplied by the respiratory rate:
Alveolar ventilation = TV - anatomical dead space x
Respiratory rate
=(500-150)ml x 15 per minute = 5.25L/per minute.
Tidal volume (TV). This is the amount of air passing into
and out of the lungs during each cycle of breathing (about
500 mL at rest).
inspiratory reserve volume (IRV). This is the extra
volume of air that can be inhaled into the lungs during
maximal inspiration, i.e. over and above normal TV.
Inspiratory capacity (IC). This is the amount of air
that can be inspired with maximum effort. It consists of
the tidal volume (500 ml) plus the inspiratory reserve volume.
Functional residual capacity (FRC). This is the amount
of air remaining in the air passages and alveoli at the end of
quiet expiration. Tidal air mixes with this air, causing
relatively small changes in the composition of alveolar air.
Expiratory reserve volume (ERV). This is the largest
volume of air which can be expelled from the lungs during
maximal expiration.
Residual volume (RV). This cannot be directly measured
but is the volume of air remaining in the lungs after forced
expiration.
Vital capacity (VC). This is the maximum volume of air
which can be moved into and out of the lungs:
VC = Tidal volume + IRV + ERV
Total lung capacity (TLC). This is the maximum amount
of air the lungs can hold. In an adult of average build, it
is normally around 6 litres. Total lung capacity represents
Lung function tests are carried out to determine respiratory
function and are based on the parameters outlined
above. Results of these tests can help in diagnosis and
monitoring of respiratory disorders.
Trail questions
• 1. explain physiological variable effects of the
lungs?
• 2. list and classify different lung volume
parameters capacities?
