Disciplines and Ideas in

the Social Science

MODULE 4: CONCEPTS AND
PRINCIPLES OF THE SOCIAL
SCIENCE THEORIES
The Major Social Science Theories
1. Functionalism
According to Vincent, 2001, Functionalism, also called
structural-functional theory, sees society as a structure
with interrelated parts designed to meet the biological
and social needs of the individuals in that society.
Functionalist sociologists like Parsons and Durkheim
have been concerned with the search for functions that
institutions may have in society.
However, another functionalist sociologist R. Merton
has adopted a concept of dysfunction – this refers to the
effects of any institution which detracts from the
conservation of society.
 An example of a function which helps
maintain society is that of the family, its function
is to ensure the continuity of society by
reproducing and socializing new members.
Another institution which performs an
important function is religion functionalist
sociologists believe that it helps achieve social
solidarity and shared norms and values, however
it could be argued that it fails to do this as a
result of increasing secularization in recent years
and therefore it creates a divide between
members of society rather than binding them
together (moral glue).
Concepts of Structural - Functionalism
According to Quexbook, 2018
Concepts Description

1. Collective Conscience and • Functionalists believe that without

collective conscience/ shared values and
Value Consensus beliefs, achieving social order is
impossible and social order is crucial for
the well-being of society.
• They believe that value consensus forms
the basic integrating principle in society.
And if members of society have shared
values, they therefore also have similar
identities, this helps cooperation and
avoids conflict.
• Value consensus also ensures that people
have shared: Goals, Roles and Norms.
Norms can be described as specific
guidelines of appropriate behavior; for
example, queuing when buying things.
2. Social Order • Functionalists believe
that there are four main
basic needs that an
individual requires in
order to exist in society.
• They also believe that
these four basic needs
are essential for
maintaining social order.
• They are: food, shelter,
money and clothing
3. Functionalism and • Durkheim believes that education
transmits society’s norms and values.
Education Education brings together a mass
and changes them into a united
whole which leads to social solidarity.
• Parsons (1961) believes that
education leads to universalistic
values and that education performs a
link between family and the wider
society which in turn leads to
secondary socialization.
• Education also allows people to train
for their future roles in society.
Schools instill the value of
achievement and the value of
equality of opportunity.
• Education helps match people with
jobs suited to them.
4. Functionalism and Family • George Peter Murdock
believes that the family
provides four vital functions
for society: sexual,
reproductive, economic, and
educational.
• The family is the primary
point of socialization in that
it provides children with
values and norms. Family
also stabilizes adult
personalities.
• A family unit provides
emotional security for each
person in the relationship.
5. Functionalism and Media • The media operate in
the public interest by
reflecting the interests
of the audience. It
portrays public opinion.
• The media understands
that society has a wide
diversity of culture and
this is shown by the
different amounts of
stories it covers.
6. Functionalism and it is this entity called society
Crime and Deviance that creates crime and
deviance.
• Crime and deviance are socially
constructed –they are not
natural, obvious, or
theologically inspired
categories.
• They are concepts that were
brought into the world solely by
humankind.
• Moreover, Durkheim goes
beyond this and shows us how
• Durkheim shows us that there is socially constructed definitions
such a thing as society, and that of crime and deviance are linked
into a wider social structure.
The Major Social Science Theories
2. Marxism
According to Quexbook, 2018, Marxism is a social,
political, and economic philosophy named after Karl
Marx, which examines the effect of capitalism on labor,
productivity, and economic development and argues for
a worker revolution to overturn capitalism in favor of
communism.
Marxism posits that the struggle between social
classes, specifically between the bourgeoisie, or
capitalists, and the proletariat, or workers, defines
economic relations in a capitalist economy and will
inevitably lead to revolutionary communism.
Concepts of Marxism
Certain concepts are key to an understanding of Marxism, a
political theory that has shaped world politics for over 150 years.
Key Marxist concepts are diametrically the opposite to capitalism,
and some believe have created a mentality of a society that is very
much a ‘them and us’ one.
Marxism believes that capitalism can only thrive on the
exploitation of the working class. Marxism believes that there was a
real contradiction between human nature and the way that we must
work in a capitalist society. Marxism has a dialectic approach to life
in that everything has two sides. Marxism believes that capitalism
is not only an economic system but is also a political system. The
profit difference between what goods are sold for and what they
actually cost to make; Marxism refers to as a “surplus profit”.
Marxism believes that economic conflict produces class (rich,
middle and poor) and inherently class produces conflict.
 A Marxist analysis called ‘Polarisation of the Classes’
describes the historical process of the class structure
becoming increasingly polarised –pushed to two ends with
noting in the middle. It says that soon classes will disappear
and be absorbed either into the bourgeoisie or the
proletariat.
Capitalism largely shapes the educational system;
without the education system the economy would become a
massive failure as without education we are without jobs and
employment which is what keeps society moving. Education
helps to maintain the bourgeoisie and the proletariat so that
there can workers producing goods and services and others
benefiting from it. Schools transmit an ideology which states
that capitalism is just and reasonable. Ruling class project
their view of the world which becomes the consensus view
 Marxists believe that a key part in the control of the Proletariat
is the use of alienation in all aspects of society, including the
family, the education system and the media. This provides the
Bourgeoisie with a supple mass of workers who do not mind
working for the external rewards of a constant wage.
Marxists believe that deviance is any behavior that differs
from the societal norm. It is seen as deviant because as a society,
we do not accept it. Deviance can vary from simply odd behavior to
behavior that can harm society or is considered dangerous or
disrespectful.
Neo-Marxism is based on ideas initially projected by Karl Marx.
Marx believed that economic power led to political power and that
this is the key to understanding societies. Neo-Marxists believe the
economic system creates a wealthy class of owners and a poor
class of workers. They also believe that certain social institutions
such as churches, prisons and schools have been created to
maintain the division between the powerful and the powerless.
The Major Social Science Theories
3. Symbolic Interactionism
According to Quex book, 2018, The symbolic interaction
perspective, also called symbolic interactionism, is a major
framework of the sociological theory.
This perspective relies on the symbolic meaning that people
develop and build upon in the process of social interaction.
Although symbolic interactionism traces its origins to Max Weber's
assertion that individuals act according to their interpretation of the
meaning of their world.
A social psychological theory developed from the work of
Charles Horton Cooley and George Herbert Mead in the early part of
the twentieth century (the actual name of the theory comes from
Herbert Blumer, one of Mead’s students). According to this theory,
people inhabit a world that is in large part socially construct.
Concepts of Symbolic Interactionism

The most important conceptual building block on

which symbolic interactionists have based their analysis
of human conduct is the concept of the symbol, or, as
Mead called it, the significant symbol.
Symbol is a vocal or other kind of gesture that has
the same meaning and solicits the same reaction
between the one using it and to whom it is directed.
Conventional Signs anything associated with some other
thing or event, but it is produced and controlled by the
very organisms that have learned to respond to it.
Natural Signs are those that show appropriateness with
its use, that is, the sign is in its literal form. Object is
anything to which attention can be paid and towards
 Tangible anything that can be seen by the
naked eye and can be touched(physical).Intangible
not having a physical appearance; cannot be
touched or seen by the naked eye (social).
An act starts with an impulse, which occurs
when people’s existing adjustment or line of activity
is disturbed. In perception, people begin to name or
designate objects.
Thus, gives direction to an act. In the
manipulation stage, people take concrete steps to
reach our goal. Finally, the act ends with
consummation when people’s original adjustment or
line of activity is restored.
Principles of the Three Major Social Science
Theories
Social Science Theory Principles

1. Structural - Functionalism • Societies should be examined

holistically in an interrelated
system framework.
• Causation is reciprocal and, in
many instances, multiple.
• Social systems are generally in a
state of equilibrium.
• The functionalists are less
interested in the history of a
society, but more concerned with
social interaction.
• The functionalists attempt to find
the interrelationships between the
compounds of social structure.
2. Marxism • Both Hegel and Marx have dealt
with a basic question – How is man
to be reconciled with him and with
the world? Hegel was of opinion that
mind of man passes through history
and finally comes to realize what is
the world.
• Both Hegel and Marx thought that
man was the product of self-
knowledge and he goes on
reconciling with the world. But to
Hegel the concept of self-
knowledge is associated with Spirit
or Absolute Idea
• Marx has rejected it and has laid
down the famous doctrine of
alienation. That is, he tries to
understand himself or the world
around him through the alienation.
 product of the alienated labor. In
fact, alienation occupies a very
important place in Marx’s theory.
• In capitalist economy there is a
division of labor which means that a
labor produces a single or small part
of an article. The capitalist system
has introduced this division of labor
to have better results.
• But its harmful consequence is with
the passing away of time man is
gradually alienated from the whole
production system and finally the
society.
• The general meaning of alienation is
that it is the “subjugation of man by
his own work, which has assumed
the guise of independent things”.
• The theory of alienation is the
• The entire economic process
including production and distribution
is beyond the control of workers.
They work just like machine.
• In the opinion of Marx, since
alienation is the greatest evil of
capitalist system the workers must
be freed from this evil.
• But he has warned us by saying that
there is no scope of freeing
individuals from the curse of
alienation because it is an integral
part of the capitalist system.
• If we go through Marx’s analysis, we
shall find that the only way of
freeing man from alienation is the
establishment of communism or
communist society.
3. Symbolic Interactionism
(Blumer, 1969; Manis and • Human beings, unlike lower
Meltzer, 1978; A. Rose,1962; animals, are endowed with
Snow, 2001) the capacity for thought.
• The capacity for thought is
shaped by social interaction.
• In social interaction, people
learn the meanings and the
symbols that allow them to
exercise their distinctively
human capacity for thought.
• Meanings and symbols allow
people to carry on
distinctively human action