Digestive

System
References:
Biological Science (Freeman 5th 2014)
Biology(Reece et.al. 9th 2011)
Overview
In Grade 6, the you learned how the different organ systems work
together.
In Grade 7, you were introduced to the levels of organization in an
organism of which, organ systems are but a part.
In this module, you will learn not just the structures of certain organ
systems that work together but also the processes they undertake to
keep the state of balance in organisms.
Emphasis will be given on the digestive system. Four of the major
functions of the digestive system are covered here: ingestion of
food, digestion of food, absorption of nutrients, and elimination of waste
materials.
This module covers also the complementary role played by the
respiratory and circulatory systems in the digestion of food
Animals
ingest, digest,
and absorb
nutrients to
survive and
thrive.
• Large Intestine
• Mouth
• Espophagus
• Pharynx
• stomach
• Small intestine
a. absorption of nutrients
b. Chewing
c. absorption of water
d. mix bolus into gastric juice
e. Chewing
f. pushes food into esophagus
g. muscular tube connecting pharynx and
stomach
Two general designs of the digestive
tracts

1. Incomplete Digestive Tracts

2. Complete Digestive Tracts
Incomplete
digestive tracts Food in Wastes out
have a single opening
that doubles as the
location where food is
ingested and wastes
are eliminated. The
mouth opens into a
chamber, called a
gastrovascular cavity,
where digestion takes
place.
Anemones
Complete
digestive tracts
have two openings—
they start at the
mouth and end at
the anus. The
interior of this tube
communicates
directly with the
external
environment via
these openings.
PROCESS: OBTAINING ENERGY AND MOLECULES FOR LIFE

1. Ingestio 2. Digestion: 3. Absorption: 4. Elimination:

n: Taking Breakdown of Uptake of Disposal of
in food food into nutrients waste
smaller pieces
 CONNECTION OF DIGESTIVE SYSTEM TO
CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
The circulatory system helps the digestive system by transporting
the nutrients absorbed from digested food throughout the body,
essentially delivering the broken-down food components to cells
where they can be used for energy and building blocks.

Key points about how the circulatory system supports the digestive
system

• NUTRIENT ABSORPTION-the small intestine absorbs most of

nutrients from food,then enter the bloodstreams via capilliaries.
• BLOODSTREAM TRANSPORT-Nutrients travel through the
circulatory system’ carried by blood to reach different parts of
body.
• INCREASED BLOOD FLOW AFTER MEALS-When food is
digested, blood flow to the digestive organs increases to facilitate
efficient nutrient absorption.
CONNECTION OF DIGESTIVE SYTEM TO
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
• The respiratory system provide oxygen that need the
digestive system needs to break down food and convert into
energy,process known as cellular respiration.

• In return,the digestive system provides the nutrients the

respiratory system needs to function itself.
CONNECTION OF DIGESTIVE SYSTEM TO
EXCRETORY SYSTEM
• DIGESTIVE AND EXCRETORY SYSTEM work together by
processing nutrients from food,absorbing what the body
needs,and eliminating the remaining waste products trough
feces (digestive system) and urine (excretory)cleansing the
bloodstream and removing toxins.
Key Points about excretory:
• Waste elimination –Collecting and solidying waste products left
after nutrient absorption.
• Water reabsorption- Large intestine is to reabsorb water from
waste material,ensuring efficient waste removal.
Key points about excretory system
Accessory organs
• Tongue
• Teeth
• Salivary glands
• Liver
• Gall Bladder
• Pancreas
 The Mouth
• Mechanical digestion
• Takes in food and
reduces its size by
chewing
• Starts chemical digestion
• Saliva contains enzyme
amylase, which breaks
down carbohydrates
Pharynx
• Throat
• Functions
• Connects nasal
cavity with oral
cavity for breathing
• Pushes food into
esophagus
The Esophagus

• Muscular tube
connecting pharynx
to stomach
The Stomach
• Below the diaphragm
in the upper left
quadrant of the
abdominal cavity

• Functions
• Receive food from
esophagus
• Mix bolus with gastric
juice • Pyloric sphincter
• Start protein digestion • Controls movement of
substances into small
• Move food into small
intestine
intestine
The Small Intestine
• Tubular organ
extending from the
stomach to the large
intestine

• Functions
• Digestion
• Absorption of nutrients
The Large Intestine
• Absorbs water and
electrolytes
The Rectum and Anal
Canal
• Rectum – off sigmoid colon

• Anal canal
• Last few centimeters of rectum
• Opening to outside of body is the anus

Large
Intestine
The Liver
• Lobular organ in right upper quadrant
• Large right lobe and smaller left lobe
• Hepatic lobules – contain macrophages
• Hepatocytes – process nutrients in blood
and make bile

• Part of liver’s function

• Store vitamins and iron
 The Gallbladder
• Small sac-like structure
located beneath the
liver

• Only function is to store

bile

• Cholecystokinin causes
the gallbladder to
release bile
Gallbladder
The Pancreas
 Located behind the stomach
 Acinar cells produce pancreatic juice, which contains
these enzymes:
 Pancreatic amylase – digests carbohydrates
 Pancreatic lipase – digests lipids
 Nucleases – digests nucleic acids
 Trypsin, chymotrypsin, and carboxypeptidase –
digest proteins
Changes in food as it
undergoes
Physical and Chemical
Digestion
Digestive Enzymes
Chemical Digestion
• This involves further breaking up of
the large molecules of food by the
action of digestive enzymes.
 Protein to amino acids

 Fat molecules to fatty acids and

glycerol

 Carbohydrates to simple sugar

 Carbohydrates
(chemical digestion in the mouth)

Salivary amylase or ptyalin

I. Starch maltose
maltase
II. Maltose glucose
 Proteins
(chemical digestion in the stomach)

HCl
I. Pepsinogen pepsin
pepsin
Pepsinogen pepsin
pepsin
II. Proteins smaller
polypeptides
 Carbohydrates
(chemical digestion in the small intestine)

pancreatic amylase
I. Starch maltose
maltase
Maltose glucose and fructose
sucrase
Sucrose glucose and fructose
lactase
Lactose glucose and galactose
 Proteins
(chemical digestion in the small intestine)

enterokinase
I. Trypsinogen pepsin
Trypsin and chymotrypsin
II. Proteins smaller
or polypeptides polypeptides

III. Smaller polypeptides and dipeptides

Carboxypeptidase, aminopedtidase, dipeptidase

Amino acid
 Fats
(chemical digestion in the small intestine)

Bile salt
I. Fats small fat droplets
lipase
II. Fat droplets fatty acids and

glycerol
Digestive Enzymes
Specialized Digestive
Organ
 Compare and
Do This!
contrast the
digestive
tract of the
organism you
have to the
human
digestive
system.
Bird
Cow
The Bird Crop
• Crop refers to the
prominent,
widened
segment of the
oesophagus.
• stores food
regulates its
flow into the
The Avian Gizzard
• The avian gizzard is
another prominent type of
modified stomach.
• Birds do not have teeth and
cannot chew food into
small pieces. Instead, most
species swallow sand and
small stones that lodge in
the gizzard. As this
muscular sac contracts,
food is pulverized by the
grit.
• The gizzard of a wild turkey
can crack large walnuts.
 Ruminants’
Stomach
(sheep, goats, deer, antelope, giraffe, and cow)

 It is specialized for
digesting cellulose—
not proteins.
 The microbes ferment
the cellulose to
produce food for
themselves;
meanwhile, other by-
products of the
fermentation, as well
as some of the
microbes themselves,
 Ruminants
Rumen: serves as a
fermentation part;
absorbs fatty acids

Reticulum: chamber
adjacent to the
rumen
Omasum: where water
and some minerals are
absorbed

Abomasum: contains
digestive enzymes and
corresponds to a true
stomach
Figure 41.17 The alimentary canals of a carnivore(coyote) and herbivore (koala).
The koala’s
alimentary canal
is specialized for
digesting
eucalyptus
leaves. Extensive
chewing chops
the leaves into
tiny pieces,
increasing
exposure to
digestive juices.
In
the long cecum
and the upper
portion of the Figure 41.17 The alimentary canals
carnivore(coyote) and herbivore (koala).
of a

colon, symbiotic
NUTRITION AND WELLNESS
Am I eating right?
Nutrition
 The study of foods and how they are used
by the body.
Food
• Any material that contains nutrients

Nutrient
• A substance that an organism needs to
remain alive; a carbohydrate, protein, or fat
is an example of it.
The Food and Nutrition Research Institute
(FNRI)

 It has developed a food pyramid for

Filipinos, a simple and easy to follow
daily eating guide. This guide is
useful in helping people select food
that supply all the nutrients for energy
and growth.
 Food Groups
The recommended daily amount for each food group
will supply your body with the nutrients it needs for
good health.
a) rice, rice products, corn, root crops, bread, noodles;
b) fruits and vegetables;
c) milk and milk products, eggs, fish, shellfish, meat and
poultry, dried beans and nuts; and
d) sugar and sweets, fats and oil.
Food groups and the equivalent of one serving portion of common foods

Food Recommended
Equivalent of one (1) serving portion of
groups Intake
common foods

Fat 6-8 1 teaspoon coconut oil (5 grams)

and teaspoons = 1 tablespoon coconut cream
oils = 1 teaspoon mayonnaise
= 1 teaspoon margarine/butter
= 2 teaspoons peanut butter
Food groups and the equivalent of one serving portion of common foods

Food Recommended
Equivalent of one (1) serving portion of
groups Intake
common foods

Sugar/ 5-6 1 teaspoon sugar (5 grams)

sweets teaspoons = 1 teaspoon honey
= 1 teaspoon fruit flavored drink
(powder)
= 2 teaspoons jam/jellies/preserves
= 1/5 glass softdrink/flavored drink
= 2-3 teaspoons fruit flavored drink
= 1 piece hard candy
 Recommended Equivalent of one (1) serving
Food groups
Intake portion of
common foods
Egg 1 piece 1 piece chicken egg
Milk and 1 glass 1 serving
milk = 1 glass whole milk
products
= 4 tsps powdered whole
milk diluted to 1 glass of
water
= ½ cup evaporated milk
diluted to ½ glass of
water
 Recommended Equivalent of one (1) serving
Food groups
Intake portion of
common foods
Vegetables 3 servings 1 serving of leafy vegetables
= 1 cup raw or ½ cup cooked
1 serving of other vegetables
= ½ cup raw or ½ cup cooked

Fruits 3 servings 1 serving of vitamin C rich food

= 1 medium sized fruit or 1 slice
of a big fruit
1 serving of other fruits
= 1 medium sized fruit or 1 slice
of a big fruit
 Recommended Equivalent of one (1) serving
Food groups
Intake portion of
common foods
Rice, rice 6-8 servings 1 serving
products,
corn,
= 1 cup rice
root crops, = 4 slices loaf bread
bread, = 2 slices puto
noodles = 5 pieces small pandesal
= 1 cup corn
= 2 cups noodle
= 1 cup cooked yellow
kamote
Fiber
• It cannot be digested and absorbed by the
body.
• It absorbs water and helps eliminate the
waste products of the body.
• It may help prevent certain diseases such as
heart disease, cancer and diabetes.
• Not eating enough fiber can cause
constipation and other intestinal problems.
• Examples of some food that are rich in
fiber are grains, fruits, and vegetables.
Water
• Our body is made up of 55 to 60 percent
water.
• Water plays important roles in important
processes such as digestion, elimination of
waste products, and regulation of body
temperature.
• You need to drink about 8 glasses of water a
day to replace the amount you lose through
sweat, urine, and respiration
Food Plate

The Food Plate is divided

into four parts as a
general guide for how
much a person should
choose from each food
group.
 What happens when nutritional
needs are not adequately met?

A complete diet is necessary to supply

the nutrients that organisms need for
growth, development, and maintenance.
Dietary deficiencies in these
important nutrients can result in
complications and diseases.
Assignment:
Nutrients Food Functions Deficiency signs
Sources and symptoms

Carbohydrates
Protein
Fats
Vitamins
Minerals

page 314
Biological Science ,Freeman et. al
 Major Minerals and
Electrolytes
Required by Humans
Mineral Calcium (Ca)

Food dairy products, green

Sources vegetables, legumes

Functions bone and tooth formation,

nerve signaling, muscle
response

Deficiency loss of bone mass, slow

signs and growth
symptoms
Mineral Calcium (Ca)

Food dairy products, green

Sources vegetables, legumes

Functions bone and tooth formation,

nerve signaling, muscle
response

Deficiency loss of bone mass, slow

signs and growth
symptoms
VITAMINS, MINERALS, AND SYMPTOMS OF
DEFICIENCY

• A nutrient is a catch-all term for any

substance that provides the building blocks for
replenishment of an organism (so it includes
vitamins, minerals, essential fatty acids,
essential amino acids, and also macronutrients,
such as carbs, protein, and fats).
• Vitamins and minerals (those nutrients
normally found in a multivitamin) are distinct
from macronutrients in that they don’t provide
energy; they help the body carry out some of
its vital functions.
 VITAMINS, MINERALS, AND
SYMPTOMS OF DEFICIENCY

• Here are some visible signs that you might

be deficient in particular vitamins or
minerals. The point here is to get you to
recognize that vitamins and minerals are
important, and that’s why a multivitamin is
a good idea. Do not supplement an
individual vitamin or mineral without
the advice of a nutritionist or
naturopathic physician, because
overdose or imbalance is possible for some
of them, and also because some of these
symptoms may be indicative of an
 VITAMINS, MINERALS, AND SYMPTOMS OF
DEFICIENCY

Nails and Hair:

• Ridges: often a zinc
deficiency
• Soft or brittle nails: may be
a magnesium deficiency
• Hair loss: can be a lot of
things, but biotin or zinc
deficiency are possible
 VITAMINS, MINERALS, AND SYMPTOMS OF
DEFICIENCY

Skin: usually skin stuff requires the gut and/or the liver to be
addressed, and there are often food intolerances involved. That said,
it may also indicate the following deficiencies:
• Dermatitis (inflamed skin): related to deficiency in Vitamins B2, B3,
B6, C, E, A, zinc, and biotin
• Follicular Hyperkeratosis (plugged pores on the backs of the arms):
Vitamin A deficiency
• Seborrheic Dermatitis (flaky, oily skin): could be a biotin deficiency
• Eczema: potentially Vitamin B2 or Vitamin E deficiency.
• Psoriasis: associated with low Vitamin A, D, E, C, and zinc.
• Acne Vulgaris: associated with deficiency in Vitamins A, B5, B6, E,
and zinc
• Acne Rosacea: associated with deficiency in Vitamins C and B2
 VITAMINS, MINERALS, AND SYMPTOMS OF
DEFICIENCY

Skin: usually skin stuff requires the gut and/or the liver to
be addressed, and there are often food intolerances
involved. That said, it may also indicate the following
deficiencies:
• Dermatitis (inflamed skin): related to deficiency in
Vitamins B2, B3, B6, C, E, A, zinc, and biotin
• Follicular Hyperkeratosis (plugged pores on the backs of
the arms): Vitamin A deficiency
• Seborrheic Dermatitis (flaky, oily skin): could be a biotin
deficiency
• Eczema: potentially Vitamin B2 or Vitamin E deficiency.
•
 VITAMINS, MINERALS, AND SYMPTOMS OF
DEFICIENCY

Skin:
Acne Vulgaris:
associated with
deficiency in Vitamins A,
B5, B6, E, and zinc
VITAMINS, MINERALS, AND SYMPTOMS OF DEFICIENCY

Eyes
• Night blindness: vitamin A deficiency
• Dark circles: sometimes called “allergic
shiners”; often a sign of food intolerance
Nose:
• Epistaxis (nose bleeds): may be a folate
or Vitamin B12 deficiency, Vitamin K
deficiency, or a lack of antioxidants.
Ears:
• Tinnitus: may be caused by a lot of
things, but could be a Vitamin B3, B12
or Vitamin E deficiency.
• Mouth

• Swollen or fissured tongue: may be iron deficiency, or lack of vitamins B2, B3,
B6, or B12

• Cracked, peeling lips or edges of the mouth: may be a vitamin B2 deficiency

• Bleeding gums: vitamin C deficiency

• Gum disease: folic acid, CoQ10, or Vitamin C deficiency

• Loss of taste: may be a B12 or zinc deficiency

• Canker sores: may be a B12 or folate deficiency

• Muscles

• Frequent soreness or spasm: may be a magnesium deficiency or electrolyte

imbalance

• Restless Leg Syndrome: may be caused by a number of things, but can be an

electrolyte imbalance, or deficiency in iron, calcium, Vitamin E or folate.

• If you’re experiencing any of these symptoms, it might be a good idea to: 1)

increase your fruit and veggie intake, 2)
find a good, absorbable multivitamin and 3) find out if you have an
underlying condition that is preventing absorption of nutrients, or
are taking prescription meds that inhibit absorption. (And for the
noted conditions, consider getting a thorough workup.)
• Signs/Symptoms of Essential Fatty
Thick or cracked calluses
Acid Deficiency Dandruff or cradle cap
• Dry skin (e.g., feet/face/general) Dry, lackluster, brittle or unruly hair
Soft, fraying, splitting or brittle
• Scaly or flaky skin (e.g., legs) fingernails
Dull nails - lack of surface shine
• Cracking/peeling fingertips & skin (e.g., Slow growing fingernails
heels) Dry eyes
Dry mouth/throat
• Lackluster skin Inadequate vaginal lubrication
Menstrual cramps
• Small bumps on back of upper arms Premenstrual breast pain/tenderness
• Patchy dullness &/or color variation of Excessive ear wax
Excessive thirst
skin
Allergic (e.g., eczema/asthma/hay
• Mixed oily and dry skin ('combination' fever/hives)
skin) Crave fats/fatty foods
Stiff or painful joints
• Irregular quilted appearance of skin
(e.g., legs)
• Lack of Energy
• According to the University of Maryland Medical Center,
the main role of carbohydrates is to provide your body,
particularly your brain and nervous system, with energy.
An enzyme secreted by your body converts carbohydrates
into glucose, or blood sugar, which is the fuel your body
needs for energy. Some of this is used for immediate fuel,
and the leftover glucose is stored in your liver, muscles
and cells for later use. If you don't consume enough
carbohydrates, you'll lack energy, which can make you
feel tired, weak and unable to think clearly.
• Constipation
• Healthy carbohydrates include whole-grains, vegetables, fruits, beans
and nuts. If you don't consume enough of these plant-based
carbohydrates, your diet may be low in fiber, which can lead to
constipation, according to PubHealth. Constipation is defined as having
a bowel movement less than three times a week. Other signs of
constipation include hard stools and difficult passing stools, which can
cause discomfort when going to the bathroom. Consuming enough
complex carbohydrates, such as whole-grain breads, pastas and cereal,
will aid your digestive health by helping waste move through your body
and reducing the risk of constipation.
• Nutritional Deficiencies
• According to the Weight-Control Information Network, if you
skimp on carbohydrates you could miss out on key nutrients
needed for good health, leaving you vulnerable to minor
illnesses and serious diseases. For example, citrus fruits, broccoli
and tomatoes are good sources of vitamin C, while carrots, sweet
potatoes and apricots are rich in vitamin A; beans are high in
folate and whole-grain carbs contain a wealth of minerals and B
vitamins. Vitamin C helps support immunity, vitamin A is
important for eye health and folate plays a vital role in many of
your body's functions and may help prevent heart disease. Signs
of poor nutrition may not be obvious immediately, but they can a
toll on your health over time.
• Nausea, Headache and Bad Breath
• Drastically restricting carbohydrates to less than 20 grams a day
can result in ketosis, which occurs when your body doesn't have
enough glucose for energy, according to MayoClinic.com. When
you deprive yourself of energy-providing glucose, your body
breaks down stored fat. These partially broken-down fats trigger
ketosis. Signs and symptoms of ketosis include nausea,
headache and bad breath, as well as mental fatigue. Moreover,
ketosis can cause your body to produce high levels of uric acid,
which can be a risk factor for painful swelling of the joints and
kidney stones, reports the Weight-Control Information Network.
• Protein is the building block of yourself. It’s the building block of
your muscles and also is present in the foods that are going to
boost your metabolism and fat-burning potential. Nothing
is more important than protein. It really is the fuel that motivates
and really supports your body in building healthy tissues and
cells.
• Eating too little protein can result in these symptoms as well:
• A sluggish metabolism
• Trouble losing weight
• Trouble building muscle mass
• Low energy levels and fatigue
• Poor concentration and trouble learning
• Moodiness and mood swings
• Muscle, bone and joint pain
• Blood sugar changes that can lead to diabetes
• Slow wound healing
• Low immunity
Signs that Your Body Isn’t Getting Enough
Protein

You’re feeling more anxious and

moody
• Amino acids are the building
blocks for neurotransmitters which
control your mood. Proteins help
the brain synthesize hormones like
dopamine and serotonin that help
bring on positive feelings like
calm, excitement and positivity.
Signs that Your Body Isn’t Getting Enough
Protein

Your workouts are suffering

You’re probably already aware that protein
is needed to build new muscle mass, but it’s
also important for sustaining your energy
and motivation. A low protein diet can result
in muscle wasting (or muscle atrophy),
fatigue and even fat gain — it can also be
behind female athlete triad. In fact, you can
workout more, but see less results if your
diet isn’t adequate to support tissue repair
or your energy needs.
Signs that Your Body Isn’t Getting Enough
Protein

Your workouts are suffering

You’re probably already aware that protein
is needed to build new muscle mass, but it’s
also important for sustaining your energy
and motivation. A low protein diet can result
in muscle wasting (or muscle atrophy),
fatigue and even fat gain — it can also be
behind female athlete triad. In fact, you can
workout more, but see less results if your
diet isn’t adequate to support tissue repair
or your energy needs.
• 3.
• 4. You aren’t sleeping well
• Poor sleep and insomnia can sometimes be linked to unstable
blood sugar levels, a rise in cortisol and a decrease in serotonin
production. Blood sugar swings during the day carry over
through the night. Carbohydrates require much more insulin than
fat or protein does. Eating foods with protein before bed can help
with tryptophan and serotonin production, and they have a
minimal effect on blood glucose levels; in fact, protein slows
down the absorption of sugar during a meal
• 5. You have “brain fog”
• Protein is needed to support many aspects of healthy neurological
functioning. Brain fog, poor concentration, lack of motivation and
trouble learning new information can be signs that you’re low in
neurotransmitters you need to focus including dopamine,
epinephrine, norepinephrine, and serotonin. Neurotransmitters are
synthesized in the brain using amino acids, and studies show that
balanced diets with enough protein can boost work performance,
learning and motor skills.
• 6. You’re gassy and can’t go to the bathroom
• Many metabolic and digestive functions depend on amino acid
intake. If your body feels fatigued and run down in general due to
protein deficiency, enzyme production, muscle contractions in
your GI tract and digestion in general will suffer.
• 7. Your pants are feeling tighter
• Although sometimes higher in calories than carbs, high-protein
foods cause increased satiety to a greater extent than
carbohydrates or fats do, so they can prevent overeating and
snacking. They also help stabilize your blood sugar, allow you to
retain more muscle which burns more calories all day, and can
reduce cravings
• 8. Your menstrual cycle is irregular
• One of the most common reasons women suffer from
irregular periods and infertility is the condition known as
polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS). Two major risk factors for
PCOS are obesity and pre-diabetes or diabetes — in fact, insulin
resistance affects 50–70 percent of all women with PCOS. Low-
protein, high-sugar/high-carb diets can contribute to insulin
resistance, fatigue, inflammation and weight gain that disrupts
the delicate balance of female hormones (including that of
estrogen, progesterone and DHEA) needed to sustain a regular
cycle
• 9. You’ve been getting injured more often and are slow to
heal
• A low protein diet can raise your risk for muscle loss, falling, slow
bone healing, bone weakness, fractures and even osteoporosis.
Protein is needed for calcium absorption and helping with bone
metabolism. Studies show that older adults with the greatest
bone losses are those with a low protein intake of about 16–50
grams per day. Research also shows that a diet high in amino
acids can help treat muscle loss due to aging (sarcopenia).
• Skin and Nail Alterations
• A lack of protein in the diet can cause changes in your skin and nails. Protein
enables cell regeneration, produces new cells and replaces dead ones.
Therefore, if you do not consume adequate amounts of protein, your skin
may become very light and burn easily when exposed to sunlight. You may
experience cracking, flaking, dryness and rashes of the skin. Delayed wound
healing and ulcers are signs of low protein intake. Protein aids nail
formation. Protein deficiency can cause white bands or brownish spots on
the nails.
• Hair Loss
• Dry, sparse hair that falls out easily or changes color or texture is a sign of
low protein intake. Hair contains 90 percent protein. Protein deficiency
results in thinning hair or hair loss. According to the Institute of Medicine,
adult females require 46 grams of protein per day; adult males need 56
grams of protein.
• Infection
• Importance of Vitamins

Vitamins are essential to health and growth, and prevention and

cure of diseases. They work synergestically together. Most
vitamins cannot be made by the body, and can only be obtained
from food and supplements.
• Vitamin Deficiency Symptoms

Deficiencies arise when there is lack of any vitamins. They

usually develop slowly. Symptoms can initially be so mild as to
be undetectable. When symptoms become obvious, health may
have been affected for some time.