Intro to Stats
Data Representation
(Independent Study)
Please go through the Powerpoint on Brightspace and
complete all of the exercises. An additional chapter from
the textbook is also on Brightspace to help you.
These tasks should be completed in your exercise books
clearly labelled as Independent Study.
Intro to Stats
Data Collection
Populations and samples
Populatio
n
Sample
!
A population is: ? that are of interest.
the whole set of items
A sample is: some subset of the population intended to represent
the population. ?
You’re probably used to a ‘population’ meaning all
humans/animals within a country/ecosystem. But a population
could be “all the lightbulbs in a factory” or “all the cars in the
UK”.
Sampling key terms
Population
Sample
! Each individual
thing in the ! Often sampling units of a
population that can population are individually
be sampled is known named or numbered to form
as a sampling unit. a list called the sampling
frame.
Populations vs Samples
We could collect data either from a sample, or from the entire population.
?
Data collected from the entire population is known as a census.
Advantages Disadvantages
Censu Should give completely • Time consuming and expensive.
s accurate result. • Can not be used when testing involves
? destruction. ?
• Large volume of data to process.
Sampl • Cheaper. • Data may not be accurate.
e •
•
Quicker. ?
Less data to process.
• ?
Data may not be large enough to
represent small sub-groups.
Example: A supermarket wants to test a delivery of avocados for ripeness by
cutting them in half.
a. Suggest a reason why the supermarket should not test all the avocados in the
delivery.
b. The supermarket tests a sample of 5 avocados and finds that 4 of them are
ripe. They estimate that 80% of the avocados in the deliver are ripe. Suggest
one way that the supermarket could improve their estimate.
a Testing the avocados destroys?them (and thus can’t be sold).
b Use a larger sample size (as this would be better estimate of the
proportion of ripe avocados). ?
Types of Data
Qualitative/Categorical Quantitative
Non-numerical values, e.g. colour. Numerical
values.
Note that while
discrete variables Discrete Continuous
only allow specific
values, the range Can only take specific Can take any decimal
could still be infinite,
e.g. “number of
values, e.g. shoe size, value (possible with a
attempts before number of children. specified range).
success”.
Data can be grouped for conciseness, at the
expense of losing the exact original values.
Weight Freque
(kg) ncy 20 ≤ 𝑤 <70 This is known as
Lower Upper
a ?
class interval.
Midpoint
?
class = 45? ?
class Class width =
boundar
y
boundar ?
Types of Sampling
Type How to carry out Advantages Disadvantages
Simple
Random Sampling
Systematic
Stratified
Non-random
Quota
Opportunity
Random Sampling
Population
Ordinarily, we would want each thing in our sampling frame to
have an equal chance of being chosen, in order to avoid
bias.
This is known as random sampling.
There are a few ways of doing this…
Simple Random Sampling
Type How to carry out Advantages Disadvantages
What is it : • Bias free. • Not suitable
Every sample has • Easy and cheap when
?
an equal chance of
being selected. •
to implement.
Each number
population size
is large.
has a known • Sampling frame
Simple Method: equal chance of needed.
Random
Sampling
In sampling frame
each item has
?
being selected.
?
identifying number.
?
Use random
number generator,
or ‘lottery
sampling’ (names
in a hat).
Edexcel S3 June 2004 Q1a
There are 64 girls and 56 boys in a school. Explain briefly how you could
take a random sample of 15 pupils using a simple random sample. (3)
Mark for allocating identifier
to each sampling unit.
? Mark for one (bias-free) method
to select such a number.
Mark for explicitly mentioning
how that number is actually used.
Systematic Sampling
Type How to carry out Advantages Disadvantages
What is it : • Simple and • Sampling frame
Required elements quick to use. again needed.
are chosen at • Suitable for • Can introduce
regular intervals in large samples/ bias if sampling
ordered list. populations. frame not
random.
Systematic
Sampling
i.e. Take every kth
?
elements where:
? ?
starting at random
item between 1
and .
Edexcel S3 June 2009
Q1a
A telephone directory contains 50 000 names. A researcher wishes to
select a systematic sample of 100 names from the directory. Explain in
detail how the researcher should obtain such a sample. (2)
We need a random
first item.
?
Stratified Sampling
We want to sample Populatio
20% of the n
population. If the
population were
divided into distinct
groups (e.g. age
ranges), known as
‘strata’, we could
randomly sample
20% from each group,
ensuring each group
is equally
represented.
Type How to carry out Advantages Disadvantages
What is it : • Reflects • Population must
Population divided into population be clearly
groups (strata) and a
simple random sample
structure. classified into
carried out in each group. • Guarantees distinct strata.
proportional • Selection within
Stratified Same proportion sampled representation of each stratum
Sampling ?
from each strata. ?
groups within ?
suffers from same
population. disadvantages as
Used when sample is large
and population naturally
simple random
divides into groups. sampling.
Example Question
Edexcel S3 Jan 2006 Q1
A school has 15 classes and a sixth form. In each class there are 30 students. In
the sixth form there are 150 students. There are equal numbers of boys and girls
in each class. There are equal numbers of boys and girls in the sixth form. The
head teacher wishes to obtain the opinions of the students about school uniforms.
Explain how the head teacher would take a stratified sample of size 40. (7)
You would
certainly
want to
know your
? mark
scheme on
this one!
Non-Random Sampling
Consider the following scenario: You wish to conduct a survey in the UK
on whether being left-handed affects IQ. We need to choose people
to assess.
Why would random sampling be problematic?
?
Because we don’t know the sampling frame, i.e. don’t have a list
of all left-handed (and non-left-handed) people in the UK.
For this scenario we’d likely use quota sampling, i.e.
1. As with stratified sampling, divide population into groups according to
characteristic of interest, then determine size of each group in sample to reflect
proportions within the population.
2. But instead of random sampling within each group, we actively choose people
within each group via suitable means (e.g. advertising), until the ‘quota’ for
each group is filled.
A variant of this is opportunity sampling, where we find people at the same
time the survey is being carried out (e.g. exit polls at polling stations). This is
not a suitable method for the left-handed example, because giving the likely time-
consuming nature of assessment coupled with resources required, we’d likely
arrange with the people taking part before the actual assessment tasks took place.
Quota & Opportunity Sampling
Type How to carry out Advantages Disadvantages
What is it : • Allows small • Non-random
Population divided sample to still sampling can
into groups be introduce bias.
according to representative • Population must
characteristic. A of population. be divided into
quota of • groups, which
No sampling
items/people in can be costly or
Quota frame required.
Sampling ?
each group is set to
try and reflect the
• ?
Quick, easy, • ?
inaccurate.
Increasing scope
inexpensive. of study
group’s proportion • Allows for easy increases number
in the whole comparison of groups, adding
population. between time/expense.
Interviewer selects
different groups • Non-responses
the actual sampling
in population. are not recorded.
units.
Sample taken from • Easy to carry • Unlikely to
people who are out. provide a
available at time of • Inexpensive. representative
study, who meet sample.
Opportunity/
•
Convenience
criteria.
? ? ?
Highly
dependent on
Sampling individual
researcher.
Example Question
Edexcel S3 June 2010
Q2
?
?
?
Name That Sampling Method!
Simple
Systematic Stratified Quota Opportunity
Random
Sampling Sampling Sampling Sampling
Sampling
Suggest a suitable sampling
method.
Probably systematic sampling, as the
“You wish to test lightbulbs
method of choosing items is simpler than
produced by a factory in a
daily batch.”
?
simple random sampling (where it would be
time-consuming to find specifically chosen
random light bulbs). Sampling frame is known.
“You wish to survey consumer Quota sampling or opportunity
sampling. We’d realistically not have
opinion on your new drink ?
access to the sampling frame (i.e. a list
FizzGuzz released in the UK.” of all UK residents).
“You wish to determine Stratified sampling. We (probably)
students’ favourite TV have access to the sampling frame (i.e.
programmes in your school, ?
a list of all students). Stratified sampling
ensures that each stratum (year group)
that is fairly representative of is proportionately represented.
each year group.”
Exercise 1A
Exercise 1B
Exercise 1C
Exercise 1C
Exercise 1D
