Correlational
Research
A positive correlation implies that as one variable (X) increases,
the other variable (Y) also increases.
Conversely, a negative correlation suggests that as X goes up,
Y goes down.
Correlation coefficient ranges from -1.0 to 1.0, indicating
positive, negative, or zero correlation.
Survey Research
Opinion & Attitudes
Originally used to study opinions, attitudes, and social facts.
Causal Relationships
Evolved to infer causal relationships.
Survey Techniques
Techniques include personal interviews, questionnaires, telephonic surveys, and observations.
Survey Research Evolution
Interviews are common for gathering information, opinions, attitudes, and reasons for behavior.
Structured Interviews
1 Predetermined questions and fixed responses.
Unstructured Interviews
2
Flexibility in questioning and responses.
3 Individual to Individual
4 Individual to Group
5 Group to Individuals
Group to Group.
Questionnaire Survey
Common Method
Questionnaires are a common method of collecting information.
Versatile
They are versatile and can be used in a variety of research
settings.
Cost-Effective
Questionnaires are a cost-effective way to gather data.
Predetermined Questions
They consist of predetermined questions that respondents
answer in writing.
Questionnaire Survey Features
Structured Questions Quantitative Data
Questionnaire surveys use structured questions, They primarily gather quantitative data, providing
allowing for consistent data collection and analysis. numerical insights into opinions and behaviors.
Advantages and Disadvantages
Quick Data Collection Inaccurate Information
Surveys enable quick data collection from a large Respondents may provide inaccurate information due
number of people and provide rapid insights into public to memory issues or social desirability bias, where they
opinions. may tailor their responses to please the researcher.
Psychological Testing
Assessment of Evaluation of Human Objective Tool for
Individual Differences Characteristics Comparison
Assessment of individual Psychologists create various tests A psychological test is an
differences has always been a key to evaluate human characteristics objective tool used to compare
focus in psychology. like intelligence, personality, and individuals' mental or behavioral
interests for purposes such as traits.
selection, training, and diagnosis.
Psychological Testing Process
1 Test Selection
Tests are chosen based on various factors, including test
data, background, and interests.
2 Test Administration
Tests can be administered individually or in groups, with
or without time limits.
3 Test Interpretation
Results are analyzed and interpreted to understand an
individual's strengths, weaknesses, and potential.
Case Study Insights
In-Depth Examination Multiple Methods Understanding Human
Case studies involve in-depth Researchers focus on individuals,
Behavior
examination of unique cases to groups, institutions, or events to Case studies have been
gain insights into various gather rich information using instrumental in understanding
phenomena. multiple methods like interviews human behavior and
and observations. development, providing valuable
research tools in fields like clinical
psychology.
Case Study Insights
Case studies provide in-depth analysis of a specific
individual, group, or situation. They offer valuable
insights into complex phenomena and can be used
to explore unique cases or test theories.
Quantitative Method Feature
Structured Approach
Quantitative methods use close-ended questions in tests,
questionnaires, and structured interviews.
Numerical Data
Responses are usually scaled to indicate strength and magnitude.
Answers are assigned numerical values for scoring.
Statistical Analysis
Calculations of scores help in understanding participants' levels on
specific attributes. Statistical methods such as central tendency,
variability, and correlation are utilized for analysis.
Qualitative Method
Characteristics
Human Experiences Narrative Analysis
Qualitative methods focus on Methods like Narrative Analysis
the complexity of human are used to understand
experiences. experiences.
Descriptive Data Content Analysis
Data in qualitative methods are Content analysis is used to
descriptive and cannot be identify thematic categories in
quantified. qualitative data.
Limitations of Psychological Enquiry
Lack of True Zero Point Relative Nature of Psychological Tools
In physical sciences, measurements start from zero. Psychological tests are context-specific. Tests
Psychological measurements lack a true zero point. designed for one group may not be suitable for
another.
Ethical Issues
Ethical issues are important in research. Researchers must
consider the ethical implications of their work. They must
ensure that their research is conducted in a responsible and
ethical manner.
