Physical

Layer
AD42/AI42 Data Communications and Networking
Outline Session-
3
• Signals
◦ Analog Signals
◦ Digital Signals
• Digital Transmission
• Digital-to-Digital Conversion

• TRANSMISSION IMPAIRMENT • Analog-to-Digital Conversion

◦ Attenuation
◦ Distortion • Analog Transmission
◦ Noise
• Digital-to-Analog Conversion
• DATA RATE LIMITS
◦ Noiseless Channel: Nyquist Bit Rate • Analog-to-Analog Conversion
◦ Noisy Channel: Shannon Capacity
• Multiplexing
◦ Using Both Limits
• PERFORMANCE • Frequency-Division Multiplexing
◦ Bandwidth
• Time-Division Multiplexing
◦ Throughput
◦ Latency (Delay)
◦ Bandwidth-Delay Product
◦ Jitter

2
Analog signal
• An analog signal can take one of two forms
◦ periodic -commonly use
◦simple - a sine wave, cannot be decomposed into simpler signals
◦Composite - made up of many simple sine
◦The range of frequencies contained in a composite signal is its
bandwidth.
◦The bandwidth is the difference between the lowest and highest
frequencies in the signal
◦For example, if a composite signal contains frequencies between 1000
and 5000, its bandwidth is 5000 – 1000, or 4000.
◦ aperiodic (nonperiodic)

3
 Sine wave
• The most fundamental form of a periodic analog signal.
• Represented by three parameters:
◦ Period (T) - the amount of time, in seconds, a signal needs to complete one cycle
◦The frequency (f), measured in hertz (Hz), refers to the number of periods in
1 s.
◦Period and frequency are inverses of each other, in other words (f = 1/ T).
◦ peak amplitude - absolute value of its highest intensity.
◦For electrical signals, peak amplitude is normally measured in volts.
◦ Phase - position of the waveform relative to time 0
◦If we think of the wave as something that can be shifted backward or forward
along the time axis, phase describes the amount of that shift
◦It indicates the status of the first cycle
◦Phase is measured in degrees or radians (360° is 2π rad)

4
Sine wave
•The voltage of a battery is constant (for example, 1.5 V). However,
this can be considered to be periodic with a frequency of 0 (and a
period of infinity).
•The electrical voltage in our homes in the United States is periodic
with a peak value between 110 to 120 V. Its frequency is 60 Hz.

5
 Sine Waves:
•Revisited
signal strength

period
T = 1/f
peak
amplitude
180 270
0 90 360
time

Phase

phase / phase shift

6
Sine Wave - Wavelength
•Characteristic of a signal traveling through a transmission
medium
•The distance a simple signal can travel in one period
•The wavelength binds the period or the frequency of a simple
sine wave to the propagation speed in the medium.\
•While the frequency of a signal is independent of the
the wavelength depends on both the frequency and the
medium,
medium
•The wavelength can be calculated if one is given the
propagation speed of the medium and the frequency of the
signal
•If we represent wavelength by λ, propagation speed by c, and
frequency by f, we get λ = c / f = c × T

7
 Sine Wave - Time and Frequency
•Domains
Sine wave shown by using what is called a timedomain plot, which
shows changes in signal amplitude with respect to time.
•To show the relationship between amplitude and frequency, we can
use a frequency-domain plot
•In the frequency domain, a sine wave is represented by one spike
•The position of the spike shows the frequency; its height shows the
peak amplitude.

8
Digital signal
• Information can also be represented by a digital signal
◦For example, a value 1 can be encoded as a positive voltage and a value 0 as
zero voltage.
• A digital signal can have more than two levels- send more than 1 bit for each
level
• We send 1 bit per level in Figure a and 2 bits per level in Figure b.
• In general, if a signal has L levels, each level needs log2 L bits.

9
Digital signal – Bit rate
•Digital signals are nonperiodic, and thus period and frequency are no
tappropriate characteristics of digital signals
•it rate (instead of frequency)—is used to describe digital signals. -
the number of bits sent in 1 s, expressed in bits per second (bps).
•The bit rate can be represented as kbps (kilo bits per second, where
kilo means one thousand) or Mbps (mega bits per second, where
mega means one million)
•Assume we need to download text documents at the rate of 100
pages per minute. What is the required bit rate of the channel?
◦A page is an average of 24 lines with 80 characters in each
line.
◦If we assume that one character requires 8 bits, the bit rate is
100 ×
24 × 80 × 8 = 1,536,000 bps = 1.536 Mbps 10
Digital signal – Bit Length
•We discussed the concept of the wavelength for an analog signal: the
distance one cycle occupies on the transmission medium.
•We can define something similar for a digital signal: the bit length.
•The bit length is the distance 1 bit occupies on the transmission
medium
◦ Bit length = 1 / (bit rate)
•The length of the bit in Example of to download text
documents is
1/1,536,000 = 0.000000651 s = 0.651 μs

11
 Transmission of Digital
•Signals
A digital signal is a composite analog signal with frequencies
between zero and infinity
•how can we send a digital signal from point A to point B?
•We can transmit a digital signal by using one of two different
approaches:
◦ Baseband transmission means sending a digital signal over a
channel without changing it to an analog signal
◦ Broadband transmission or modulation means changing the digital
signal to an analog signal for transmission

12
Analog Vs
Digital Analog Signal
a continuous wave that changes over a
Digital Signal
a discrete wave that carries information in
time period. binary form.
represented by a sine wave. represented by square waves.
described by the amplitude, period or described by bit rate and bit intervals.
frequency, and phase.
has no fixed range. has a finite range i.e. between 0 and 1.
more prone to distortion. less prone to distortion.
transmit data in the form of a wave. carries data in the binary form i.e. 0
The human voice is the best example of an and 1.
analog signal. Signals used for transmission in a computer are
analog transmission is the only choice if the digital signal.
we have a bandpass channel. while digital transmission is very desirable, a
Converting a low-pass analog signal to a low-pass channel is needed.
bandpass analog signal is traditionally Converting digital data to a bandpass analog
called analog-to-analog conversion. signal is traditionally called digital-to-analog
conversion.
13
Signal Impairments
•Signals travel through transmission media not perfect
•Imperfection  causes signal impairment
◦Signal at the beginning of the medium is not the same as the
signal at the end of the medium
◦What is sent is not what is received
•Three causes of impairment
◦Attenuation
◦Distortion
◦Noise

14
Attenuation and Amplification
•Attenuation means a loss of energy
•When a signal ( simple or composite ) travels through a
medium, it loses some of its energy in overcoming the
resistance of the medium

◦Why wire carrying electric signals gets warm after a while?

◦ Some of the electrical energy in the signal is converted to heat

•To compensate for this loss, amplifiers are used to amplify the
signal
• The higher the frequency, the higher the attenuation

15
Attenuation…
•How to show that a signal has lost or gained strength?
◦engineers use the unit of the decibel
•The decibel (dB) measures the relative strengths of two
signals or one signal at two different points
◦Positive dB 🠦 signal is amplified (gains strength)
◦Negative dB 🠦 signal is attenuated (loses strength)

•Decibel  defined in terms of voltage or power

◦because power is proportional to the square of the
voltage

16
Attenuation - Relative Signal
Strength
•Measured in Decibel (dB)
Point 1

Point 2

dB in terms Formula variables

of
Power dB = 10 log10 (P2/P1) P1 and P2  powers of a signal at points 1 and
2, respectively
voltage dB = 20 log10 (V2/V1) V1 and V2  voltage of a signal at points 1 and
2, respectively

17
Attenuation Example 1
•Suppose a signal travels through a transmission medium
and its power is reduced to one-half
◦Means that P2 is (1/2)P1
•In this case, the attenuation (loss of power) can be
calculated as

•A loss of 3 dB (–3 dB) is equivalent to losing one-half the

power

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Attenuation Example 2
•A signal travels through an amplifier, and its power is
increased 10 times
◦Means that P2 = 10P1
•In this case, the amplification (gain of power) can be
calculated as

19
Attenuation Example 3
•One reason that engineers use the decibel to measure the
changes in the strength of a signal  decibel numbers can be
added (or subtracted) when we are measuring several points
(cascading) instead of just two
•A signal travels from point 1 to point 4

◦The signal is attenuated by the time it reaches point 2

◦Between points 2 and 3, the signal is amplified
◦Again, between points 3 and 4, the signal is attenuated
•In this case, the decibel value can be calculated as
The signal has gained in power.

20
Attenuation - Link Budget
Accounting of all gains and losses of signal power
throughout the signal's path

Tx Cable loss Rx Power

Power
Sender Cable Receiver

Tx antenna gain Rx antenna gain

path loss
Tx Rx amp
Tx Power amp gain Rx Power
gain RX
Sender Receiver
TX Amplifier
Amplif
ier
21
 Attenuation
•Example 4 is used to measure signal power in
Sometimes the decibel
milliwatts
◦referred as dBm
◦calculated as dBm = 10 log10 Pm
◦where Pm is the power in milliwatts
• Calculate the power of a signal with dBm = −30
•We can calculate the power in the signal as

22
Attenuation Example 5
•The loss in a cable is usually defined in decibels per
kilometer (dB/km)
•If the signal at the beginning of a cable with −0.3 dB/km
has a power of 2 mW, what is the power of the signal at 5
km?
•Solution: The loss in the cable in decibels is 5 × (−0.3)
=
−1.5 dB. We can calculate the power as

23
Distortion
•Distortion means that the signal changes its form or shape
◦occur in a composite signal made of different frequencies.
•Each signal component has its own propagation speed
through a medium
◦its own delay in arriving at the final destination
•Propagation velocity varies with frequency

24
Distortion …
• If the delay is not exactly the same as the period duration, it may create a
difference in phase
◦ Signal components at the receiver have phases different from what they had at the
sender
◦ The shape of the composite signal is therefore not the same

25
Noise
• Noise  Undesirable signals added between the transmitter and the receiver
◦ may corrupt the signal

Types of noise Description

thermal noise • random motion of electrons in a wire
◦ creates an extra signal not originally sent by the transmitter
induced noise • comes from sources such as motors and appliances
◦ Devices act as a sending antenna
◦ Transmission medium acts as the receiving antenna
crosstalk • effect of one wire on the other
◦ One wire acts as a sending antenna Wire 1
◦ Other wire as the receiving antenna Wire 2
impulse noise a spike (a signal with high energy in a very short time) that comes from power lines,
lightning, and so on

26
 Noise : Signal-to-Noise
•Ratio
SNR is the ratio of what is wanted (signal) to what is not
wanted (noise).
◦A measurement of signal reception's quality
◦often described in decibel units, SNRdB

SNRdB = 10 log10 SNR

•high SNR means the signal is less corrupted by noise.
•Low SNR means the signal is more corrupted by noise

27
Noise : Signal-to-Noise
Ratio

•The power of a signal is 10 mW and the power of the noise

is 1 μW; what are the values of SNR and SNRdB ?

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Noise : Signal-to-Noise
Ratio
•The values of SNR and SNR for a noiseless channel are
dB

•We can never achieve this ratio in real life; it is an ideal

29
Data Rate Limits
•Data rate: How fast we can send data in bits per second,
over a channel?
•Data rate depends on three factors:
1. The bandwidth available
2. The level of the signals we use
3. The quality of the channel (the level of noise)
•Two theoretical formulas were developed to calculate the
data rate:
◦Nyquist for a noiseless channel
◦Shannon for a noisy channel.

30
 Noiseless Channel: Nyquist Bit
•Rate
Nyquist bit rate formula defines the theoretical
maximum bit rate
Bit Rate = 2 × Bandwidth ×
log2L of the channel
◦Bandwidth is the bandwidth Harry Nyquist
◦ L is the number of signal levels used to represent data (1889-1976)
◦ BitRate is the bit rate in bits per second.
•theoretically , given a specific bandwidth, any bit rate can be
calculated by increasing the number of signal levels
•Practically there is a limit
◦Increase in the number of signal levels, a burden on the receiver is
imposed
◦ If the number of levels in a signal is just 2, the receiver can easily distinguish between a 0
and a 1
◦ If the level of a signal is 64, the receiver must be very sophisticated to distinguish between 64 different
levels.
◦ increasing the levels of a signal reduces the reliability of the system.
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 Noiseless Channel: Nyquist Bit
•Rate
Does the Nyquist theorem bit rate agree with the intuitive
bit rate described in baseband transmission?
◦They match when we have only two levels.
◦In baseband transmission, the bit rate is 2 times the bandwidth
if we use only the first harmonic in the worst case
◦However, the Nyquist formula is more general and can be applied
to baseband transmission and modulation
◦It can be applied when we have two or more levels of signals.

32
 Noiseless Channel: Nyquist Bit
•Rate
Consider a noiseless channel with a bandwidth of 3000 Hz
transmitting a signal with two signal levels.
◦The maximum bit rate can be calculated as

•Consider the same noiseless channel transmitting a signal

with four signal levels (for each level, we send 2 bits).
◦ The maximum bit rate can be calculated as

33
 Noiseless Channel: Nyquist Bit
•Rate
We need to send 265 kbps over a noiseless channel with a
bandwidth of 20 kHz. How many signal levels do we
need?
◦use the Nyquist formula as shown:

◦Since this result (L) is not a power of 2, we need to either

increase the number of levels or reduce the bit rate
◦If we have 128 levels, the bit rate is 280 kbps
◦If we have 64 levels, the bit rate is 240 kbps

34
 Noisy Channel: Shannon's
Capacity
•In reality, the channel is always noisy.
•Claude Shannon introduced a formula
◦determine the theoretical highest data rate for a
noisy channel: Shannon's Capacity
Capacity = Bandwidth × log2(1+SNR)

◦bandwidth is the bandwidth of the channel (Hz)

Claude Elwood Shannon
◦SNR is the signal-to-noise ratio (1916-2001)
◦capacity is the capacity of the channel in bits per
second
•No indication of the signal level - means that no matter how many
levels we have, we cannot achieve a data rate higher than the capacity
of the channel
•It is a characteristic of the channel, not the method of transmission
35
 Example 1 – Shannon's
•Capacity
Consider an extremely noisy channel in which the value of
the signal-to-noise ratio is almost zero.
◦the noise is so strong that the signal is faint.
•For this channel the capacity C is calculated as

•This means that the capacity of this channel is zero

regardless of the bandwidth
◦We cannot receive any data through this channel

36
 Example 2 – Shannon's
•Capacity
We can calculate the theoretical highest bit rate of a regular
telephone line. A telephone line normally has a bandwidth of
3000. The signal-to-noise ratio is usually 3162. For this channel
the capacity is calculated as

•This means that the highest bit rate for a telephone line is
34.860 kbps
•If we want to send data faster than this, we can either increase
the bandwidth of the line or improve the signal-to-noise ratio.

37
 Example 3 – Shannon's
•Capacity
The signal-to-noise ratio is often given in decibels. Assume
that SNRdB = 36 and the channel bandwidth is 2 MHz. The
theoretical channel capacity can be calculated as

38
 Example 4 – Shannon's
•Capacity
For practical purposes, when the SNR is very high, we can
assume that SNR + 1 is almost the same as SNR. In these
cases, the theoretical channel capacity can be simplified to

•For example, we can calculate the theoretical capacity of

the previous example as

39
 Using Both Limits
•In practice, both methods used to find the limits and signal levels
•Example 1: We have a channel with a 1-MHz bandwidth. The SNR
for this channel is 63. What are the appropriate bit rate and
signal level?
◦Use the Shannon formula to find the upper limit.

◦ The Shannon formula gives us 6 Mbps, the upper limit

◦ For better performance we choose something lower, 4 Mbps, for example.
◦ Use the Nyquist formula to find the number of signal levels

The Shannon capacity gives us the upper limit; the Nyquist formula tells
us how many signal levels we need.

40
Network Performance
•important issue in networking  performance of the
network
•Performance parameters:
◦Bandwidth
◦Analog – Hertz
◦Digital – Bits per second (bps)
◦Throughput
◦Actual data rate
◦Latency (delay)
◦Time it takes for an entire message to completely arrive at the destination

41
Bandwidth
•used in two different contexts with two different measuring values:
•bandwidth in hertz
◦range of frequencies contained in a composite signal or the range of frequencies
a channel can pass
◦ Ex. bandwidth of a subscriber telephone line is 4 kHz

•bandwidth in bits per second

◦number of bits per second that a channel, a link, or even a network can transmit
◦ Ex. bandwidth of a Fast Ethernet network (or the links in this network) is a maximum of 100 Mbps -
means that this network can send 100 Mbps.

•relationship between the bandwidth in hertz and bandwidth in bits

per second
◦increase in bandwidth in hertz means an increase in bandwidth in bits per
second
◦ depends on whether we have baseband transmission or transmission with modulation

42
Bandwidth – examples
•The bandwidth of a subscriber line is 4 kHz for voice or
data.
•The bandwidth of this line for data transmission can be up
to 56,000 bps using a sophisticated modem to change the
digital signal to analog.
•If the telephone company improves the quality of the line
and increases the bandwidth to 8 kHz, we can send
112,000 bps.

43
Throughput
•Measure of how fast we can actually send data through a
network
•Bandwidth in bits per second and throughput are
different
◦A link may have a bandwidth of B bps, but we can only send T bps
through this link with T always less than B.
◦ Bandwidth is a potential measurement of a link; the throughput is an
actual measurement of how fast we can send data.
◦ For example, we may have a link with a bandwidth of 1 Mbps, but the
devices connected to the end of the link may handle only 200 kbps
◦ cannot send more than 200 kbps through this link.
◦ Imagine a highway designed to transmit 1000 cars per minute from one
point to another.
◦ Due to congestion on the road, 100 cars per minute are transmitted
◦ The bandwidth is 1000 cars per minute; the throughput is 100 cars per minute.

44
Throughput - Example
•A network with bandwidth of 10 Mbps can pass only an
average of 12,000 frames per minute with each frame
carrying an average of 10,000 bits. What is the throughput
of this network?

•The throughput is almost one-fifth of the bandwidth in this

case.

45
Latency
•Defines how long it takes for an entire message to completely
arrive at the destination from the time the first bit is sent out
from the source
•Composed of
◦Propagation time
Latency = propagation time
◦Transmission time + transmission time
◦Queuing time + queuing time
◦Processing time + processing delay

Entire message

Propagation time

Transmission time

46
 Latency - Propagation
•time
time required for a bit to travel from the source to the
destination.
•Propagation time = Distance / (Propagation Speed)
•The propagation speed of electromagnetic signals depends
on the medium and on the frequency of the signal
◦For example, in a vacuum, light is propagated with a speed of 3 ×
108 m/s. It is lower in air; it is much lower in cable.

47
 Example Latency - Propagation
•time
What is the propagation time if the distance between the
two points is 12,000 km? Assume the propagation speed to
be 2.4 × 108 m/s in cable.

•The example shows that a bit can go over the Atlantic

Ocean in only 50 ms if there is a direct cable between the
source and the destination.

48
Latency - Transmission time
•In data communications , message is sent not just 1 bit
◦The first and last bit may take a time equal to the propagation time
to reach its destination
◦The first bit leaves earlier and arrives earlier; the last bit leaves later and arrives later.

•Transmission time  time between the first bit leaving the

sender and the last bit arriving at the receiver
•The transmission time of a message depends on the size
of the message and the bandwidth of the channel
Transmission time = (Message size) / Bandwidth

49
Latency - Transmission time
Sender Receiver

First bit leaves

Propagation time
First bit arrives

Data bits
Last bit leaves Transmission time

Last bit arrives

Time Time

50
 Example 1 - Transmission
•time
What are the propagation time and the transmission time
for a 2.5-kbyte message (an e-mail) if the bandwidth of the
network is 1 Gbps? Assume that the distance between the
sender and the receiver is 12,000 km and that light travels
at 2.4 × 108 m/s.

Note : Message is short and the bandwidth is high so the dominant factor is the propagation
time, not the transmission time. The transmission time can be ignored.

51
 Example 2 - Transmission
•time
What are the propagation time and the transmission time
for a 5-Mbyte message (an image) if the bandwidth of the
network is 1 Mbps? Assume that the distance between the
sender and the receiver is 12,000 km and that light travels
at 2.4 × 108 m/s.

Note: Message is very long and the bandwidth is not very high so the dominant factor is the
transmission time, not the propagation time. The propagation time can be ignored.

52
Latency – Queuing time
•time needed for each intermediate or end device to hold
the message before it can be processed.
◦not a fixed factor - changes with the load imposed on the
network.
◦When there is heavy traffic on the network, the queuing time increases
◦An intermediate device, such as a router, queues the arrived
messages and processes them one by one
◦If there are many messages, each message will have to wait

53
Bandwidth-Delay Product
•The product of bandwidth and delay is the number of bits
that can fill the link

•two hypothetical cases as examples

◦Filling the links with bits
◦Filling the pipe with bits
•Two cases show that product of bandwidth
and delay is the number of bits that can fill the
link
54
Bandwidth-Delay Product
•Filling the links with bits
◦assuming that we have a link with a bandwidth of 1 bps (unrealistic).
◦We also assume that the delay of the link is 5 s (also unrealistic).
◦We want to see what the bandwidth-delay product means in this case?
◦This product 1 × 5 is the maximum number of bits that can fill the
link.
◦There can be no more than 5 bits at any time on the link.

55
 Bandwidth-Delay Product
•Filling the pipe with bits
◦Assuming we have a bandwidth = 5 bps, and delay of the link = 5
s
◦There can be maximum 5 × 5 = 25 bits on the line.
◦The reason is that, at each second, there are 5 bits on the line
◦The duration of each bit is: 1/5 = 0.20 s.

56
Bandwidth-Delay Product
•The number of bits that can fill the link is important if we
need to send data in bursts and wait for the
acknowledgment of each burst before sending the next
one
•To use the maximum capability of the link, we need to
make the size of our burst 2 times the product of
bandwidth and delay
◦sender should send a burst of data of (2 × bandwidth ×
delay) bits
◦sender then waits for receiver acknowledgment for part of
the burst before sending another burst
◦amount 2 × bandwidth × delay is the number of bits that can
be in transition at any time

57
Jitter
•Related to delay is jitter
•Jitter is a problem if different packets of data encounter
different delays and the application using the data at the
receiver site is time-sensitive (audio and video data, for
example)
•If the delay for the first packet is 20 ms, for the second is
45 ms, and for the third is 40 ms, then the real-time
application that uses the packets endures jitter.

58
Analog and Digital

59
• Digital-to-digital Conversion •Digital-to-analog Conversion
◦Line Coding ◦ Aspects of Digital-to-Analog
◦Line Coding Schemes Conversion
◦Block Coding ◦Amplitude Shift Keying
◦Frequency Shift Keying
◦Scrambling
◦Phase Shift Keying
• Analog-to-digital Conversion ◦Quadrature Amplitude
◦Pulse Code Modulation (PCM) Modulation
◦Delta Modulation (DM) •Analog-to-analog Conversion
◦Amplitude Modulation
(AM)
◦Frequency Modulation
(FM)
◦Phase Modulation (PM)

60
 Digital
•Transmission
Computer network send information from one point to
another
•Data can be either digital or analog
◦Analog: Continuous value data (sound, light, temperature)
◦Digital: Discrete value (text, integers, Symbols)
•Signals that represent data can also be digital or analog
◦Analog: Continuously varying electromagnetic wave
◦Digital: Series of voltage pulses (square wave)

61
Digital Transmission …
• Information (analog data or digital data)
converted to either a digital signal or an analog
signal for transmission
• How to represent digital data by using digital signals

Digital Data
Digital Signal
Analog signal

62
Digital Transmission…
•schemes and techniques that used to transmit data
digitally
◦ Digital-to-digital conversion techniques  represent digital data
by using digital signals
◦Line coding (always needed)
◦block coding (may or may not be needed)
◦Scrambling (may or may not be needed)
◦ Analog-to-digital conversion techniques  represent analog data
by using digital signals
◦Pulse code modulation
◦Delta modulation

•Transmission modes:
◦ parallel or serial

63
 Digital-to-Digital Conversion - Line
Coding
•Data text, numbers, graphical images, audio, or video
◦stored in computer memory as sequences of bits
•Line coding converts a sequence of bits to a digital signal
◦At the sender, digital data are encoded into a digital signal
◦At the receiver, the digital data are recreated by decoding the digital
signal

64
Block
Coding
•How to ensure synchronization and provide some kind of
inherent error detecting?
◦Solution – need redundancy
◦Block coding  give this redundancy and improve the performance of line coding

•Block coding changes a block of m bits into a block of n

bits, where n > m
◦ referred to as an mB/nB encoding)  distinguishes block encoding
from multilevel encoding
◦multilevel encoding  written without a slash eg. 8B6T
◦ it replaces each m-bit group with an n-bit group
◦ involves three steps:
◦ Division: sequence of bits is divided into groups of m bits
◦ Substitution: substitute an m-bit group with an n-bit group
◦ Combination: n-bit groups are combined to form a stream (n > m)

65
Block
Coding

66
 Analog to Digital
•Conversion
an analog signal  created by a microphone or camera
•The amplitude of analog signal can take any value over a
continuous range i.e. it can take on an infinite values.
•Digital signal amplitude can take on finite values.
•Digital signal is superior to an analog signal
•Analog signal can be converted into digital by sampling and
quantizing-- digitization
◦two techniques
◦ pulse code modulation
◦ delta modulation

•Digital data are converted to digital signal using line coding,

block coding or scrambling techniques

67
 Pulse Code Modulation
•(PCM)
Change an analog signal to digital data (digitization)
•A PCM encoder has three processes
◦Sampling - analog signal is sampled
◦Quantization- sampled signal is quantized
◦encoding - quantized values are encoded as streams of
bits

68
PCM - Sampling
•The analog signal is sampled every Ts s, where Ts is
the sample interval or period
◦ Called as pulse amplitude modulation (PAM)
◦ Result an analog signal with nonintegral values
•The inverse of the sampling interval is called the sampling
rate or sampling frequency and denoted by fs
◦ fs = 1/Ts

69
PCM: Encoding Example
•We want to digitize the human voice. What is the bit rate,
assuming 8 bits per sample?
•Solution
•T h e h u m a n voice normally contains
frequencies fro m 0 to 4000 H z
•S o the sampling rate and bit rate are
calculated as follows:

70
PCM: The Whole
Process

71
 Minimum Required
•Bandwidth
It can be proved that the minimum bandwidth of the
digital signal is Bmin = nb × Banalog

72
Delta Modulation
(DM)
•PCM is a very complex technique
•Delta modulation reduce the complexity of PCM
•PCM finds the value of the signal amplitude for each sample
whereas DM finds the change from the previous sample  bit
•DM  no code words; bits are sent one after another
◦Modulator is used at the sender site to create a stream of bits from an
analog signal
◦Demodulator is used at receiver site to creates the analog signal from
the received digital data
•DM is not perfect  Quantization error introduced in the
process
◦The quantization error of DM is much less than that for PCM

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DM...
•The process records the small positive or negative changes,
called delta δ
◦If the delta is positive, the process records a 1
◦If it is negative, the process records a 0
•A better performance achieved if the value of δ is not fixed
◦Adaptive delta modulation - value of δ changes according to the
amplitude of the analog signal.

74
 Digital-to-Analog
•Conversion
Digital-to-analog conversion is the process of changing one
of the characteristics of an analog signal based on the
information in digital data when a band-pass channel is
available
•Required to send digital data over a band-pass channel
◦Also known as modulation

(band-pass channel)
Digital-to-analog
conversion
•Four methods:
◦ Amplitude shift keying (ASK): amplitude of a carrier is changed using the
digital data
◦ Frequency shift keying (FSK): frequency of a carrier is changed using the
digital data.
◦ Phase shift keying (PSK): phase of a carrier signal is changed to represent
digital data.
◦ Quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM): both amplitude and phase
of a carrier signal are changed to represent digital data.
 Amplitude shift
•keying
Amplitude of the carrier signal is varied to create signal
elements
•Both frequency and phase remain constant while the
amplitude changes
•Binary ASK (BASK)
◦uses only two amplitude levels
•Multilevel ASK (implemented with QAM)
◦more than two levels
 Binary Amplitude Shift
•Keying
Several levels (kinds) of signal elements with a different
amplitude can exists
• ASK  normally implemented using only two levels
◦ Binary amplitude shift keying or on-off keying (OOK)
◦ Peak amplitude of
◦One signal level is 0
◦Other signal level is the same as the amplitude of the carrier frequency

middle of the bandwidth - fc : Carrier frequency 0 <d<1

 Bandwidth for
•ASK
carrier signal is only one simple sine wave -> has a
continuous set of frequencies
• modulation produces a nonperiodic composite
signal
• bandwidth is proportional to the signal rate (baud
rate)
B = (1 + d) x S
◦ S is the signal rate
◦ B is the bandwidth Amplitude
B =S
◦ d depends
min
Minimum Bandwidth = S

on the modulation and filtering process

◦ Bmax
The =2S
value of d is between 0 and 1

Frequency
f
fc-(S/2) fc+(S/2)
c
 Frequency Shift
•Keying
frequency of the carrier signal is varied to represent data
◦ The frequency of the modulated signal is constant for the
duration of one signal element
◦ but changes for the next signal element if the data element
changes
• Both peak amplitude and phase remain constant for all
signal elements
• Binary FSK (or BFSK)
◦ consider two carrier frequencies f1 and f2
• Multilevel FSK (MFSK)
◦ more than two frequencies
 Binary Frequency Shift
•Keying
Consider two carrier frequencies f1 and f2
◦ first carrier frequency for the data element 0
◦ Second carrier frequency for the data element 1
◦ carrier frequencies are very high and the difference between
them is very small
•Both f1 and f2 are Δf apart from the midpoint between the
two bands
•The difference between the two frequencies is 2Δf
 Bandwidth for
BFSK
•carrier signal is only one simple sine wave -> has a continuous set of
frequencies
•modulation produces a nonperiodic composite signal
•Consider FSK is two ASK signals, each with its own carrier frequency
(
f1 or f2)
•difference between the two frequencies is 2Δf
◦minimum value of 2Δf should be at least S for the
proper operation of modulation and demodulation.
B = (1 + d) x S + frequency shift = (1 + d) x S + 2Δf
◦S is the signal rate
◦ B is the bandwidth
◦ d depends on the modulation and filtering process
◦ The value of d is between 0 and 1
Phase Shift Keying
•Phase of the carrier is varied to represent two or more
different signal elements
•Both peak amplitude and frequency remain constant as
the phase changes
•Today, PSK is more common than ASK or FSK
•Binary Phase Shift Keying
◦only two signal elements
•Quadrature PSK (QPSK)
◦uses two separate BPSK modulations

83
Binary Phase Shift Keying
•Or Binary PSK
•only two signal elements
◦one with a phase of 0°
◦other with a phase of 180°

84
Binary PSK
•The bandwidth is the same as that for binary ASK, but less
than that for BFSK
•No bandwidth is wasted for separating two carrier signals

PSK ASK
PSK is less susceptible to noise than ASK as ASK is more susceptible to noise than PSK
noise can change the amplitude easier than
it can change the phase
the criterion for bit detection is the phase of the criterion for bit detection is the
the signal amplitude of the signal
superior to FSK because we do not need need two carrier signals
two carrier signals
needs more sophisticated hardware to be No sophisticated hardware
able to distinguish between phases

85
 Comparison ASK, FSK,
PSK
Parameters
Variable
ASK
Amplitude
FSK
Frequency
PSK
Phase
characteristic
s
Bandwidth B =(1+d)S
d is due to modulation B=(1+d)×S+2Δf B=(1+d)×S
& filtering ,lies
between 0 & 1.

Noise immunity low High High

Complexity Simple Moderately complex Very complex
Error probability High Low Low
Performance in Poor Better than ASK Better than FSK
presence of noise

Bit rate Suitable upto 100 Suitable upto about Suitable for high bit
bits/sec 1200 bits/sec rates

86 87
Comparison ASK, FSK,
PSK
BPSK
BASK
BFSK

QPSK

87 87
 Analog-to-Analog
•Conversion
Process of transmitting analog information by an analog signal
•Although the signal is already analog, modulation is needed if a
band-pass channel is available to us eg. Radio
◦The government assigns a narrow bandwidth to each radio station
◦each radio station – produces low-pass signal
◦ all stations low analog pass signal in the same range
◦Listening to different stations, the low-pass signals need to be shifted,
each to a different range  bans pass signal

88
 Analog-to-analog
•conversion
Change an analog signal to a new analog signal with a
smaller bandwidth
◦ used when only a band-pass channel is available

• Three methods:
◦ Amplitude modulation (AM) : amplitude of a carrier is changed
based on the changes in the original analog signal
◦ Frequency modulation (FM): the phase of a carrier is changed
based on the changes in the original analog signal
◦ Phase modulation (PM): the phase of a carrier signal is changed
to show the changes in the original signal

89
Amplitude Modulation
(AM)
•Amplitude of the carrier signal is modulated to follow the changing
amplitudes of the modulating signal
◦Only the amplitude changes to follow variations in the information
◦The frequency and phase of the carrier remain the same
•The modulating signal is the envelope of the carrier
•The amplitude of the carrier signal changed according to the
amplitude of the modulating signal using a simple
multiplier

90
AM Bandwidth
•The modulation creates a bandwidth that is twice the
bandwidth of the modulating signal and covers a range
centered on the carrier frequency
◦BAM=2B

•As the signal components above and below the carrier

frequency carry exactly the same information, some
implementations discard one-half of the signals and cut
the bandwidth in half.

91
Frequency Modulation
(FM)
•Frequency of the carrier signal is modulated to follow the changing
voltage level (amplitude) of the modulating signal
◦Peak amplitude and phase of the carrier signal remain constant,
◦As the amplitude of the information signal changes, the frequency of the carrier
changes correspondingly
•Implemented by using a voltage-controlled oscillator as with FSK
◦The frequency of the oscillator changes according to the input voltage which is
the amplitude of the modulating signal

92
FM Bandwidth
•The actual bandwidth is difficult to determine exactly
•Can be shown empirically that it is
◦several times that of the analog signal or
◦2(1 + β)B where β is a factor that depends on
modulation technique with a common value of 4.

93
Phase Modulation (PM)
•phase of the carrier signal is modulated to follow the changing
voltage level (amplitude) of the modulating signal
◦peak amplitude and frequency of the carrier signal remain constant
◦As the amplitude of the information signal changes, the phase of the
carrier changes correspondingly
•It can be proved mathematically that PM is the same as FM
with one difference
◦FM: the instantaneous change in the carrier frequency is proportional to
the amplitude of the modulating signal
◦PM: the instantaneous change in the carrier frequency is proportional to
the derivative of the amplitude of the modulating signal

94
Phase Modulation (PM)
•PM is normally implemented by using a voltage-controlled
oscillator along with a derivative
•Frequency of the oscillator changes according to the derivative
of the input voltage, which is the amplitude of the modulating
signal.

95
Multiplexing
•Process of combining multiple signals (analog or digital),
commonly from slow devices, onto one very fast
communications link
◦achieved by a device called a Multiplexer (MUX) and Demultiplexer
(DEMUX)
◦ MUX: combines the lines at sender on the left to direct their transmission streams into a
single stream (many-to-one)
◦ DEMUX: separates the stream at receiver back into its component transmissions (one-to-
many) and directs them to their corresponding lines

•allow the simultaneous transmission of multiple signals across

a single data link
◦Link  physical path
◦Channel portion of a link that carries a transmission between a given
pair of lines
◦ One link can have many (n) channels

96
Multiplexing …

synchronous

Asynchronous/
statistical
Analog Multiplexing Analog Multiplexing Digital multiplexing
technique to technique to technique to combine
combine analog combine optical several low rate channels
signals signals into high rate one

•Carrier division multiple access (CDMA) is considered as a fourth

multiplexing category

97
Frequency Division Multiplexing
(FDM)
An analog multiplexing technique to combine
signals
•Can be applied when the bandwidth of a link in (hertz) is
greater than the combined bandwidths of the signal to be
transmitted
◦Medium BW > Channel BW
•Transmitting all of the signals along the same high speed
link simultaneously

98
 FDM
•…Each signal is modulated to a different carrier frequency
◦Carrier frequencies are separated by sufficient bandwidth
to accommodate the modulated signal
◦These bandwidth ranges are the channels through which the various signals
travel
◦Channels can be separated by strips of unused bandwidth -guard bands -to prevent
signals from overlapping
◦In addition, carrier frequencies must not interfere with the original data frequencies

•These modulated signals are then combined into a single

composite signal that can be transported by the link
•E.g., broadcast radio
•Channel allocated even if no data

99
Conceptual View of
FDM

Channel 3
Channel 2
Channel 1

f3
f2
f1

100
Time Division Multiplexing
(TDM)
A digital multiplexing technique to combine data
•digital process that allows several connections to share
the high bandwidth of a link
•Time is shared
◦Each connection occupies a portion of time in the link
◦Same link of FDM is shown sectioned by time rather than
by frequency
•Digital data from different sources are combined into one
timeshared link
•Analog data can be sampled, changed to digital data, and
then multiplexed by using TDM

101
Conceptual View of
TDM 1 Data flow
D
1

2 M E 2
3 2 1 3 2 1 3 2
U M
3 X 1
U 3
X

• Portions of signals 1, 2, and

3 occupy the link
sequentially
Channel 3
Channel 2
Channel 1
Channel 3
Channel 2
Channel 1
Channel 3
• Data in a message from source

Channel 2
Channel 1
1 always go to one specific
destination 1, 2, 3, or 4
• The delivery is fixed and
unvarying, unlike switching
107 107
Summary
• Signals get impaired by attenuation, distortion, and noise
• For a noiseless channel, the Nyquist bit rate formula defines the theoretical
maximum bit rate.
• For a noisy channel, we need to use the Shannon capacity to find the
maximum bit rate.
• Attenuation, distortion, and noise can impair a signal.
• Attenuation is the loss of a signal’s energy due to the resistance of the
medium.
• Distortion is the alteration of a signal due to the differing propagation
speeds of each of the frequencies that make up a signal.
• Noise is the external energy that corrupts a signal.
• The bandwidth-delay product defines the number of bits that can fill the
link.

103
Summary
• Digital-to-analog conversion is the process of changing one of the characteristics of
an analog signal based on the information in the digital data
• Digital-to-analog conversion can be accomplished in several ways: amplitude
shift keying (ASK), frequency shift keying (FSK), and phase shift keying (PSK)
• Quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM) combines ASK and PSK
• A constellation diagram shows us the amplitude and phase of a signal element,
particularly when we are using two carriers (one in-phase and one
quadrature)
• Analog-to-analog conversion is the representation of analog information by an
analog signal
• Conversion is needed if the medium is bandpass in nature or if only a bandpass
bandwidth is available to us
• Analog-to-analog conversion can be accomplished in three ways: amplitude
modulation (AM), frequency modulation (FM), and phase modulation (PM).

104