APPLIED MARINE CONTROL AND

AUTOMATION
Sensing Elements & Transducers
Part 2

DR. S. THANGALAKSHMI
FLOW MEASUREMENT
When measuring the flow of a fluid the various physical properties that must be considered are

density, pressure, viscosity and velocity. Density and pressure are readily understood while viscosity,

which is a resistance to flow, is of importance when dealing with oils. Velocity is important in flow

measurement since it decides the behaviour of the fluid.

In smooth pipes when the velocity is low, and also when dealing with high viscosity liquids, the flow is

usually streamline or laminar. This means that the particles of the fluid flow parallel to the pipe walls

and the fastest moving particles are located at the centre. At high velocities the flow is turbulent and

the fluid will have velocity components in various directions. A more even velocity will then exist

throughout the fluid with various swirls and eddies present. The average velocity of a fluid stream will

be given by the rate of flow in cubic metres per second divided by the area of the pipe in square

metres.
The nature of the flow can often be described by reference to a dimensionless index known as

Reynolds number. A Reynolds number is given by the product of the average velocity, density and

internal diameter of the pipe divided by the fluid viscosity. For any device there will be a value of

Reynolds number above which the flow will change from laminar to turbulent. For circular pipes it is

about 2000 and in most industrial applications flow is turbulent. Bernoulli's theorem states that the

total energy in each particle of fluid in motion remains constant provided there is no energy entering or

leaving the system. This total energy is the sum of potential head, static pressure head and kinetic

energy. If a horizontal length of pipe

is considered then potential head will be constant. If a pressure reducing device is placed in a pipeline,

by applying Bernoulli's theorem before and after the device, then,

Gravitational effects are constant and ρ is the density of the fluid. Rearranging this equation

gives the expression

If V1,the velocity upstream of the pressure reducing device, is considered small compared with

the velocity at the device, V2, then V1 may be ignored. Hence, Velocity of fluid,

where K is a constant.

A number of flow measuring devices use this differential pressure relationship. It can be seen,
however that the relationship is non-linear. Use is often made of 'square-root extractors' in order
to obtain a linear signal where this is used for control purposes.
Flow measurement is usually one of two types, either a flow rate or a total flow. Flow rate is a

measurement of the quantity of fluid which moves past a point per unit time. Total flow is the

quantity of fluid which has passed a point in a specified period.

Flow is classified into open channel flow and closed conduit flow.

Open channel flow occur when the flowing stream has a free or unconstrained surface open to the

atmosphere. Flows in canals or vented pipelines - like drain and sewers - which are not flowing full, are

typical examples.

In open channel flow the force causing the flow the force of gravity on the fluid. A progressive fall or

decrease in the water surface elevation occurs as the flow moves downstream.

Closed conduit flow occurs when the flow is caused by a pressure difference in the conduit. Flow in

water supply pipes or district heating pipes are typical examples. The flow rate depends mainly on the

pressure difference between the ends, the distance between the ends, the area of the conduit and the

hydraulic properties of the conduit - like the shape, roughness and restrictions like bends.
Differential Pressure Flow Meters

The flow rate in a pipe has been shown to be related to the pressure difference across a restriction

placed in the pipe. When the fluid is forced through a restriction, i.e. a reduced area, the pressure

slightly upstream is greater than the pressure just after the restriction. Tappings are taken from the

pipe at suitable points and the differential pressure can be measured with a suitable device. The

simplest device in use is the orifice plate. In its most common form it is a thin metal plate with an axial

hole. The hole edge is square facing the oncoming liquid and bevelled on the outlet side. The hole size

is chosen to provide the necessary differential pressure at the maximum flow rate. The plate should be

flat and smooth on the upstream side. A smooth flow of liquid into and away from the orifice plate, i.e.

laminar flow, is essential. In order to achieve this it is usual to ensure that there are no bends or

discontinuities for about 12 pipe diameters upstream and about half that downstream. Viscous fluids

and those with solids or gases present may require different arrangements of orifice plate.
What is a differential Pressure (Δp) Flow meter?

Differential pressure meters work on the principle of partially obstructing the flow in a pipe. This

creates a difference in the static pressure between the upstream and downstream side of the

device. This difference in the static pressure (referred to as the differential pressure) is measured

and used to determine the flow rate.

Differential Pressure Flow Meter

The concept of using the pressure drop caused by a fluid flowing through a restriction in a pipe as

a measurement of flow rate dates back to the 18th Century, when it was discovered by Bernoulli.

The basic principle of how a Δp flow meter operates is described in the figure (next

slide).
The differential pressure principle. Manometer tubes measure the difference in static
pressure upstream and downstream of the restriction.

When a fluid flows through a restriction, it accelerates to a higher velocity (i.e. V2 > V1 )
to conserve the mass flow and, as a consequence of this, its static pressure drops. This
differential pressure (Δp) is then a measure of the flow rate through the device.

In simple terms for a given size of restriction, the higher the Δp, the higher the flow rate.

The relationship between the differential pressure and flow rate is derived from Bernoulli’s
equation.
Using Bernoulli’s equation, and conservation of mass , it can be shown that the differential
pressure generated is proportional to the square of the mass flow rate, Qm (kg/s)

Many of the Δp meters available work on this principle of measuring the difference in
pressure between upstream and downstream but there are some meters which use the
differential pressure in other ways, for example, variable area meters.
Types of Differential Pressure Flow Meter
The most common types of differential pressure meter are:
1. Orifice plates
2. Venturi tubes
3. Cone meters (e.g. V-cones)
4. Nozzles
5. Low loss meters (e.g. Dall tubes)
6. Variable area meters
7. Inlet flow meters
8. Venturi cones
9. Venturi nozzles
10. Drag plates
Advantages of DP meters

1. They are simple to make, containing no moving parts

2. Their performance is well understood

3. They are cheap – especially in larger pipes when compared with other meters

4. They can be used in any orientation

5. They can be used for most gases and liquids

6. Some types do not require calibration for certain applications

Disadvantages of DP meters

1. Rangeability (turndown) is less than for most other types of flow meter

2. Significant pressure losses may occur

3. The output signal is non-linear with flow

4. The discharge coefficient and accuracy may be affected by pipe layout or

nature of flow

5. They may suffer from ageing effects, e.g. the build-up of deposits or erosion

of sharp edges
Calculating the mass flow rate using DP devices

Once a value for the Δp has been obtained, the mass flow can be calculated

using the following formula.

Where, &

Where:
C is the discharge coefficient
At is the throat area (restriction)
Δp is the differential pressure
p is the density of the fluid
d is the diameter of the throat
D is the pipe diameter
Owing to the compressibility of gases an additional parameter called the

expansibility factor, ε, is used within the mass flow equation to account

for the gas density changing as the pressure drops at the restriction.
The orifice flow meter consists basically of:
(a) A primary device, the orifice plate that creates the
flow restriction
(b) A secondary device that measures the differential
pressure created by the orifice plate.
The Primary Device: Orifice Plate:
The orifice plate is basically a thin metal plate (1.5 to 6
mm in thickness) with a hole bored in the centre. The
orifice plate has a tab or printed label on one side where
the specifications for the plate are stamped. The
The orifice plate has a typical bore
upstream side of the orifice plate usually has a sharp,
diameter that ranges from 30% to 75%
square edge facing into the flow stream. Consider a
of the inside diameter of the pipe work
typical orifice plate shown:
in which it is installed. A beta ratio of
The ratio of orifice bore diameter (d) to the pipe inside
0.4 signifies that the orifice bore
diameter (D) is called the Beta Ratio (β).
diameter is 40% of the pipe inside
β = d/D
diameter.
How an Orifice Plate Flow Meter Measures
Flow
With an orifice plate installed in a flow stream,
increase in fluid flow velocity through the
reduced area of the orifice develops a
differential pressure across the orifice. The
differential pressure generated is related to the
beta ratio of the orifice plate. The smaller the
beta ratio, the higher the differential pressure
generated. In practice, the choice of beta ratio
is a compromise between the differential
pressure desired and the flow rate required.
Shown is a typical pressure profile of the Orifice
plate.
As shown in the pressure profile above, with the orifice plate in the pipe work (in
between flanges or an orifice fitting), the static pressure upstream the plate increases
slightly due to back pressure effect and then decreases sharply as the flow passes the
orifice. Flow downstream the orifice reaches a minimum at a point called the vena
contracta where the velocity of the flow is at a maximum. Beyond the vena contracta,
static pressure starts to recover but it never gets to the upstream value. In other words,
with an orifice meter installation, there is always a permanent pressure loss. In addition
to pressure loss, some of the pressure energy is converted into sound and heat at the
orifice plate. It can be seen from the pressure profile diagram that the measured
differential pressure developed by flow through the orifice plate also depends on the
location of the pressure sensing points or pressure taps.
Pressure Tap Locations:
For orifice flow meter installations, there are five common locations for differential
pressure taps:
1. Flange (greater than 2 inches)
2. Vena contracta (greater than 6 inches)
3. Radius
4. Pipe (full flow)
5. Corner taps ( less than 2 inches)
Flange Taps:
Flange taps are the most common and are generally used for pipe sizes of 2 inches and greater.
Flange taps are a convenient alternative to drilling and tapping the main pipe for pressure
connections.
Vena Contracta Taps:
Vena contracta taps are limited to pipe sizes greater than 6inches. This limitation is mainly
imposed to provide adequate clearance of the tap from the flange. The vena contracta is where
the fluid flow has the smallest cross-sectional area, and also has the lowest pressure. Vena
contracta taps are designed around achieving the maximum differential pressure. The vena
contracta is dependent on the flow rate and pipe size, and can vary should either of these
parameters change. The vena contracta taps will therefore be affected should the flow rate or
pipe size change.
Pipe Taps:
Pipe taps are located 2.5 pipe diameters upstream and 8 pipe diameters downstream of the
orifice plate. Pipe taps are used typically in existing installations, where radius and vena
contracta taps cannot be used. They are also used in applications of greatly varying flow, as the
measurement is not affected by flow rate or orifice size. Accuracy is reduced, as they do not
measure the maximum available pressure.
Corner Taps:
Corner taps measure the pressure in the corner between the orifice plate and the pipe wall. Uses
for corner taps are found in installations with pipe diameters less than 2 inches.
Radius Taps:
Radius taps are a modification on the vena contracta taps, where the downstream tap is located
one-half pipe diameter from the orifice plate. This is to avoid the unstable region that occurs
immediately after the orifice plate. Radius taps are generally preferred to vena contracta as the
pressure tap location is simplified.
The Secondary Device:
As noted earlier, the other major component of the orifice meter is the secondary device. The
secondary device is often a differential pressure transmitter called a flow transmitter when
installed to measure flow. The flow transmitter measures the differential pressure created by the
orifice plate in the flow stream. This differential pressure is measured via impulse lines located
upstream and downstream the orifice plate. The impulse lines are connected to the high and low
pressure ports of the transmitter which then converts the differential pressure measurement into
an analogue (4 -20 ma) or digital signal which can be processed to provide a display of the
instantaneous rate of flow.
Advantages of the Orifice Plate Flow meter
1. They have a simple construction.
2. They are inexpensive.
3. They are easily fitted between flanges.
4. They have no moving parts.
5. They have a large range of sizes.
6. They are suitable for most gases and liquids.
7. They are well understood and proven.
8. Price does not increase dramatically with size.
Disadvantages of the Orifice Plate Flow meter
1. Inaccuracy is typically in the range of 1%.
2. They have Low range-ability, typically 4:1.
3. Their accuracy is affected by density, pressure and viscosity fluctuations.
4. Erosion and physical damage to the restriction affects measurement accuracy.
5. Their installation causes some unrecoverable pressure loss.
6. Fluid viscosity limits measuring range.
7. Require straight pipe runs to ensure accuracy is maintained.
8. Pipeline must be full especially for liquid flow measurement.
Typical Components of an Orifice Metering
Assembly

Differential Pressure
Transmitter
The relationship between flow rate and differential pressure for any fluid-accelerating flow
element is non-linear. When plotted on a graph, the relationship between flow rate (Q) and
differential pressure (∆P) is quadratic, like one-half of a parabola. Differential pressure
developed by a venturi, orifice plate, pitot tube, or any other acceleration-based flow element is
proportional to the square of the flow rate:
 Because the relationship between flow and pressure
involves a square root, the differential drops off
quickly as flow decreases. For this reason, the
dynamic range for these sensors is limited to about
4:1. Accuracy also varies with flow rate, from 1 to
3%.

Linear & Square Root

Scale Comparison
The traditional means of implementing the necessary signal characterization was to install a
“square root” function relay between the transmitter and the flow indicator, as shown in the
following diagram:
Internal Parts of Square-root
Extractor
The following formula can be used for converting a linear 4-20mA current loop output to a square root
extraction type:

[Output Sq Rt] = 4mA + (4 x Square Root of ([Output Linear] – 4mA))

The reverse formula for converting a square root extraction output to a linear one is:
[Output Linear] = 4mA + (([Output Sq Rt] – 4mA)^2 / 16)

The following table shows values for linear to square root extraction and vice versa (please note all
conversion values are rounded to 2 decimal places):
The high and low-pressure taps of the The relationship between the differential pressure
primary device are fed by sensing lines to (ΔP) and flow rate (Q) are not equal. DP is
a differential pressure (D/P) cell. The proportional to the square of the flow rate Q.
output of the D/P cell acts on a pressure To convert the signal from the flow transmitter,
to milliamp transducer, which transmits a (figure LHS) to one that is directly proportional to
variable 4-20 ma signal. The D/P cell and the flow-rate, one has to obtain or extract the
transmitter are shown together as a flow square root of the signal from the flow transmitter.
transmitter.
The square root extractor is an electronic (or pneumatic) device that takes the square root of

the signal from the flow transmitter and outputs a corresponding linear flow signal. Several

methods are used in the construction of square root extractors.

Square root extractors are usually current operated devices so they can be connected directly to

the 4-20 mA current loop of a flow transmitter. The output of the square root extractor is again a

4-20 mA signal. This signal is directly proportional to the flow-rate in the pipe-work.
Flow Nozzle Principle
When a flow nozzle is placed in a pipe carrying
whose rate of flow is to be measured, the flow
nozzle causes a pressure drop which varies with
the flow rate.
This pressure drop is measured using a
differential pressure sensor and when calibrated
this pressure becomes a measure of flow rate.

Description of Flow Nozzle

The main parts of flow nozzle arrangement used
to measure flow rate are as follows:
1. A flow nozzle which is held between flanges
of pipe carrying the fluid whose flow rate is
being measured. The flow nozzle’s area is
minimum at its throat.
2. Openings are provided at two places 1 and 2
for attaching a differential pressure sensor
(u-tube manometer, differential pressure
gauge etc.,) as shown in the diagram.
Operation of flow Nozzle
1. The fluid whose flow rate is to be measured enters the nozzle smoothly to the
section called throat where the area is minimum.
2. Before entering the nozzle, the fluid pressure in the pipe is p1. As the fluid
enters the nozzle, the fluid converges and due to this its pressure keeps on
reducing until it reaches the minimum cross section area called throat. This
minimum pressure p2 at the throat of the nozzle is maintained in the fluid for a
small length after being discharged in the down stream also.
3. The differential pressure sensor attached between points 1 and 2 records the
pressure difference (p1-p2) between these two points which becomes an
indication of the flow rate of the fluid through the pipe when calibrated.
Applications of Flow Nozzle
1. It is used to measure flow rates of the liquid discharged into the atmosphere.
2. It is usually used in situation where suspended solids have the property of
settling.
3. Is widely used for high pressure and temperature steam flows.

Advantages of flow Nozzle

4. Installation is easy and is cheaper when compared to venturi meter
5. It is very compact.
6. Has high coefficient of discharge.

Disadvantages of flow Nozzle

7. Pressure recovery is low
8. Maintenance is high
9. Installation is difficult when compared to orifice flow meter.
Venturi Flow Meter Working Principle

When a venturi flow meter is placed in a pipe carrying the fluid whose flow rate is

to be measured, a pressure drop occurs between the entrance and throat of the

venturi meter. This pressure drop is measured using a differential pressure sensor

and when calibrated this pressure drop becomes a measure of flow rate.
Construction of Venturi
meter
1. The entry of the venture is cylindrical in shape to match the size of the pipe
through which fluid flows. This enables the venture to be fitted to the pipe.
2. After the entry, there is a converging conical section with an included angle of
19’ to 23’.
3. Following the converging section, there is a cylindrical section with minimum
area called as the throat.
4. After the throat, there is a diverging conical section with an included angle of
5’ to 15’.
5. Openings are provided at the entry and throat (at sections 1 and 2 in the
diagram) of the venture meter for attaching a differential pressure sensor (u-
tube manometer, differential pressure gauge, etc) as shown in diagram.
(Refer previous slide)
Operation of venturi meter:
1. The fluid whose flow rate is to be measured
enters the entry section of the venturi meter
with a pressure P1.
2. As the fluid from the entry section of venturi
meter flows into the converging section, its
pressure keeps on reducing and attains a
minimum value P2 when it enters the throat.
That is, in the throat, the fluid pressure P2 will
be minimum.
3. The differential pressure sensor attached
between the entry and throat section of the
venturi meter records the pressure
difference(P1-P2) which becomes an indication
of the flow rate of the fluid through the pipe
when calibrated.
4. The diverging section has been provided to
enable the fluid to regain its pressure and
hence its kinetic energy. Lesser the angle of
the diverging section, greater is the recovery.
Pressure Loss Comparison (Orifice & Venturi)
Comparison Orifice and Venturi Meters
1. Orifice reducing element is sharp edged while venturi is
tapered tube.
2. Permanent pressure loss of orifice is 65% of measured
d/p while venturi is only 10%.
3. Venturi tube is less sensitive to Reynolds Number and
gives more accurate measurement when the
process flow varies over a wide range.
4. Venturi tube is less affected by dirty fluid which build up
deposits at orifice plates and pressure tap connections.
5. Venturi tube meter is more costly compared to orifice
plate costly compared to orifice plate and
requires greater length of pipeline.
6. Orifice plate is relatively easy to change for new range.
Applications of venturi meters
1. It is used where high pressure recovery is required.
2. Can be used for measuring flow rates of water, gases, suspended solids, slurries and
dirty liquids.
3. Can be used to measure high flow rates in pipes having diameters in a few meters.

Advantages of venturi meters

4. Less changes of getting clogged with sediments
5. Coefficient of discharge is high.
6. Its behaviour can be predicted perfectly.
7. Can be installed vertically, horizontally or inclined.
8. Low pressure drop (around 10% of Δp)
9. Lower sensitivity to installation effects than orifice plates
[Link] susceptibility to damage
[Link] suitable for gas flows with entrained liquid
[Link] standards (ISO 5167)
Limitations of venturi meters
1. They are large in size and hence where space is limited, they cannot be used.
2. Expensive initial cost, installation and maintenance.
3. Require long laying length. That is, the veturimeter has ti be proceeded by a straight
pipe which is free from fittings and misalignments to avoid turbulence in flow, for
satisfactory operation. Therefore, straightening vanes are a must.
4. Low turndown (can be improved with dual range Δp cells)
5. Greater cost to manufacture
6. Greater susceptibility to “tapping errors” in high Reynolds number gas flows owing to the
high velocity fluid passing the pressure tapping at the throat.
7. Less experimental data than orifice plates
Pitot Tube
A pitot tube or a pitot probe is a flow measurement appliance used to calculate
the fluid flow velocity.
Pitot tubes are widely utilised to determine a boat’s water speed, the airspeed of
an aircraft, and measure air, liquid and gas flow velocities in various industrial
applications.
Pitot Tube Construction and Working
A pitot tube consists of two hollow tubes that measure pressure at various places
within the pipe. One tube gauges the impact or stagnation pressure, and the other
tube measures only the static pressure, usually at the pipe wall. These hollow
tubes can be mounted separately in a pipe or installed together in one casing as a
single device.
Pitot Tube Working Principle
The pitot meter comprises a tube that is directed towards the flow. The fluid
penetrates through the impact hole, and apart from this, there can be two more
holes in the pitot tube that act as static pressure sources. Another pressure
sensing component should be installed on the meter to measure the static
pressure. The tube axis measuring the static pressure should be free from burrs so
that the boundary is smooth, and it should be perpendicular to the boundary.
The pitot-static tube that has the static pressure inlet is shown below.
A pitot tube is a cylinder with one end open and the other end closed. The fluid streaming through the
pipeline enters the pitot tube and rests there. Another section within the pitot tube is filled with fluid with
static pressure. A diaphragm separates both chambers.
The measure of dynamic pressure is given by the difference in level between the liquid in the tube and the
free surface. Measuring the impact and static pressure connected to the proper differential pressure meter
determines the flow velocity and thus the flow rate.
The flow rate is computed from the square root of the pressure. In estimating the flow rate from the
pressure, the calculation is dependent on factors such as the location of the static tap and the tube
design. The Pitot-static probe includes the static holes in the tube system to eradicate this parameter.
Pitot Tube Advantages
1. Pitot Tube is portable and does not contain any moving parts.
2. It is economical.
3. Permanent pressure loss is low.
4. Pitot tube can be easily installed on an existing system.

Pitot Tube Disadvantages

5. Foreign materials in a fluid can easily obstruct the pitot tube and disrupt normal reading.
6. Less accurate
7. Low range

Pitot Tube Application

8. The pitot tube is used in utility streams.
9. It is used in the air duct and pipe system.
[Link] is used in aircraft to measure airflow velocity.
[Link] are used for mapping flow profiles in a channel or duct.
Variable Area Flow Meters Working Principle
Variable area flow meters operate at a constant delta pressure (Δp) and the area
changes with the flowrate. The area will increase as the flowrate through the
meter increases to preserve a constant Delta Pressure (Δp).

Variable Area Flow Meters

The most common design of variable area meter is the cone-and-float type, which
is also known as a rotameter. The basic design of a variable area meter is a
tapered tube (usually glass) containing a self-centring float that is pushed up by
the flow and pulled down by gravity.
At higher flow rates the float rises to increase the area between the tube and the
float and maintain a constant Δp.
The flowrate is determined from how far the float
has risen up the tube: there are graduations on
the side of the tube. Variable area meters are
widely used for metering gas but different types
are available for a variety of different fluids. A
buoyancy correction term is required for liquids
and dense fluids.
Variable area flowmeters are very simple yet
versatile flow measurement devices for use on all
types of liquids, gases and steam. They operate
on the variable area principle, whereby a flowing
fluid changes the position of a float, piston, or
vane to open a larger area for the passage of the
fluid. The position of the float, piston, or vane is
used to give a direct visual indication of the
flowrate.
Rotameters
The rotameter is an industrial flowmeter used to measure the flowrate of liquids and gases.
Its operation is based on the variable area principle: fluid flow raises a float in a tapered
tube, increasing the area for passage of the fluid. The greater the flow, the higher the float
is raised. The height of the float is directly proportional to the flowrate. With liquids, the
float is raised by a combination of the buoyancy of the liquid and the velocity head of the
fluid.
With gases, buoyancy is negligible, and the float responds to the velocity head alone. The
float moves up or down in the tube in proportion to the fluid flowrate and the annular area
between the float and the tube wall.
The float reaches a stable position in the tube when the upward force exerted by the
flowing fluid equals the downward gravitational force exerted by the weight of the float. A
change in flowrate upsets this balance of forces. The float then moves up or down,
changing the annular area until it again reaches a position where the forces are in
 To satisfy the force equation, the rotameter float assumes a distinct position
for every constant flowrate. However, it is important to note that because
the float position is gravity dependent, rotameters must be vertically
oriented and mounted.
The tapered tube’s gradually increasing diameter provides a related
increase in the annular area around the float, and is designed in accordance
with the basic equation for volumetric flow rate:

where:
Q = volumetric flow rate, e.g., gallons per minute
k = a constant
A = annular area between the float and the tube wall
g = force of gravity
h = pressure drop (head) across the float

With h being constant in a VA meter, we have A as a direct function of flow rate Q. Thus, the rotameter
designer can determine the tube taper so that the height of the float in the tube is a measure of flow
rate.
Variable area flowmeters are used primarily to set flowrates. The operator observes the meter, and
adjusts the valve to bring the process flow to the proper flowrate. The meter’s ability to repeat or
reproduce this flowrate is of primary importance. Rotameters are repeatable up to ±1 ⁄4% of the
instantaneous flowrate. This feature enables the operator to reset or adjust the flow with confidence.
Advantages
1. The rotameter is popular because it has a linear scale, a relatively long measurement
range, and low pressure drop.
2. It is simple to install and maintain.
3. It can be manufactured in a variety of construction materials and designed to cover a
wide range of pressures and temperatures.
4. The rotameter can easily be sized or converted from one kind of service to another. In
general, it owes its wide use to its versatility of construction and applications.
5. Because of its functional advantages the rotameter is an exceptionally practical flow
measurement device.
6. The pressure drop across the float is low and remains essentially constant as the
flowrate changes. Float response to flowrate changes is linear, and a 10-to-1 flow range
or turndown is standard.
7. Variable area flowmeters are commonly used to provide cost-effective local indication of
small liquid or gas flows.
Disadvantages
1. Low accuracy – uncertainty on volumetric flowrate is ~2% of reading

2. Generally small turndown

3. Tendency of float to ‘stick’ at low flows

4. Requirement for buoyancy correction in liquids

5. Application Cautions for Variable Area Flowmeters

Electromagnetic flowmeter
In this instrument a measuring tube of non-conducting material is fitted with

two diametrically opposite electrodes. An electromagnet creates a magnetic

field through the tube at right angles to the flow of liquid. The flowing liquid

must be an electrical conductor. The movement of an electrical conductor

(the liquid) through a magnetic field perpendicular to it results in the

generation of a voltage. The generated voltage is in proportion to the

strength of the magnetic field, the distance between the electrodes, both of

which are held constant, and the velocity of the liquid. A linear read-out of

flow rate is thus provided by the voltage generated. This device is

particularly useful when measuring corrosive fluids or those with a high

solids content.
Electromagnetic flowmeter
Electromagnetic Flow Meters, simply known as mag flow meter is a volumetric flow meter which is
ideally used for waste water applications and other applications that experience low pressure drop and
with appropriate liquid conductivity required.
Principle of Magnetic Flow Meter Based on Faraday’s Law

Magnetic flow meters works based on Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic

Induction. According to this principle, when a conductive medium passes
through a magnetic field B, a voltage E is generated which is
proportional to the velocity v of the medium, the density of the
magnetic field and the length of the conductor. In a magnetic flow
meter, a current is applied to wire coils mounted within or outside the
meter body to generate a magnetic field. The liquid flowing through the
pipe acts as the conductor and this induces a voltage which is
proportional to the average flow velocity. This voltage is detected by
sensing electrodes mounted in the Magflow meter body and sent to a
transmitter which calculates the volumetric flow rate based on the pipe
dimensions.
Electromagnetic

flowmeter
Total flow measurement
Quantity flow meters usually take the form of positive displacement devices or a turbine.
Both will permit the flow of a known quantity of liquid for each revolution.

Positive displacement meters

These devices will measure a flow quantity. The liquid is usually admitted to a chamber of
known dimensions and the number of times it fills is counted. Various forms of this device
are in use using rotating lobes, vanes, a nutating (moving about an axis) disc or a
reciprocating piston. Construction of each is in many respects similar to a pump with the
liquid pressure providing the drive and the impeller moving a counter. Positive displacement
meters are extremely accurate, are unaffected by liquid pulsations and can handle liquids
with high viscosities. Good upstream filtration is a requirement with these meters.
Turbine flowmeter
The total quantity of liquid passing a point can be measured using
a small turbine. The turbine is mounted in the pipeline and is
rotated by the passing liquid, see Figure. The helix angle of the
blades will determine a length of liquid that can pass through, and
with the cross-sectional area known then the total quantity can be
determined. A mechanical drive using a worm and pinion on the
turbine shaft may be used to provide a quantity flow reading.
Alternatively a magnetic pick-up assembly may be used. The blade
tips are made of a magnetic material and a pick-up coil is used to
sense voltage pulses created by the turbine rotation. A read-out in
quantity flow is then given. Inlet conditions to the turbine must
ensure that the water is not swirling. This may be achieved by
having straight lengths of pipe some 10 pipe diameters upstream
and five downstream.
Turbine Flow Meter
It is a volumetric measuring turbine type. The flowing fluid engages the rotor causing it to rotate
at an angular velocity proportional to the fluid flow rate. The angular velocity of the rotor results
in the generation of an electrical signal (AC sine wave type) in the pickup. The summation of the
pulsing electrical signal is related directly to total flow. The frequency of the signal relates
directly to flow rate. The vaned rotor is the only moving part of the flow meter.
It consists of a flow tube with end connections and a magnetic multi bladed free spinning rotor
(impeller) mounted inside; in line with the flow. The rotor is supported by a shaft that rests on
internally mounted supports.

The rotor sits on a shaft ,which in turn is suspended in the flow by the two supports. As the media
flows, a force is applied on the rotor wings. The angle and shape of the wings transform the
horizontal force to a perpendicular force, creating rotation. Therefore, the rotation of the rotor is
proportional to the applied force of the flow.

Because of this, the rotor will immediately rotate as soon as the media induces a forward force.
As the rotor cannot turn thru the media on its own, it will stop as soon as the media stops. This
ensures an extremely fast response time, making the Turbine Flow Meter ideal for batching
applications.
PHOTOELECTRIC CELLS
Photoelectric cells operate as a result of changes brought about by the incidence of light upon

certain materials. They are used as sensors in equipment such as the oil-in-water monitor,

crankcase oil mist detector and flame failure detector. Light is a form of radiant energy and while

most of these devices use visible light some may utilize infra-red rays. This radiant energy will

affect a variety of materials in different ways. Three forms of photoelectric cell are in use:

photoconductive, photo-emissive and photovoltaic.

Photo-emissive cells utilize a film of metal such as caesium as a cathode onto which light is

incident. As a result electrons flow from the cathode to an anode and a potential is created

between the two. The cell is usually contained in an evacuated glass envelope. Alternatively the

cell may be gas-filled, when the electron flow will ionize the gas to produce more electrons and

hence an amplified signal.

Photoconductive cells use light-sensitive semiconductor materials such as cadmium sulphide,

lead sulphide, selenium and germanium. The resistance between metal electrodes placed in the

material will vary depending upon the amount of incident light. Considering the above materials,

lead sulphide is mainly used for infra-red radiation sensing and the others for visible light

radiation sensing.
Photovoltaic cells use incident light upon a junction of two different materials to produce an

e.m.f. A typical cell consists of a sandwich-type construction of cadmium metal, selenium (a

semiconductor material) and a thin transparent cover. Light passing through the transparent

material releases electrons from the selenium which flow to the cadmium and generate an e.m.f.

which can be used in a circuit which requires no other power source.

 A summary of the three types of photoelectric cells
Photoconductive: light increases the flow of electrons and reduces the
resistance.
Photovoltaic: light makes electrons move between layers, producing a
voltage and a current in an external circuit.
Photo-emissive: light knocks electrons from a cathode to an anode, making
a current flow through an external circuit.
Oil content
The presence of oil in water is usually measured for discharging water, but this can also be
applied to boiler condensate. Various methods of measurement are applied by different
manufacturers.
In the past, an inspection glass, fitted in the overboard discharge pipe of the oil/water
separator permitted sighting of the flow. The discharge was illuminated by a light bulb
fitted on the outside of the glass port opposite the viewer. The separator was shut
down if there was any evidence of oil carry over, but problems with observation occurred due
to poor light and accumulation of oily deposits on the inside of the glasses.
Present-day monitors are based on the same principle. However, whilst the eye can
register anything from an emulsion to globules of oil a light-sensitive photo-cell detector
cannot. Makers may therefore use a sampling and mixing pump to draw a representative
sample with a general opaqueness more easily registered by the simple photo-cell monitor.
Flow through the sampling chamber is made rapid to reduce deposit on glass lenses. They
are easily removed for cleaning.
Bilge or ballast water passing through a sample chamber can be monitored by a strong light
shining directly through it and on to a photo-cell (Figure 1). Light reaching the cell decreases
with increasing oil content of the water. The effect of this light on the photo-cell compared with
that of direct light on the reference cell to the left of the bulb, can be registered on a meter
calibrated to show oil content.
Another approach is to register light scattered by oil particles dispersed in the water by
the sampling pumps (Figure 2), Light reflected or scattered by any oil particles in the flow,
illuminates the scattered light window. This light when compared with the source light increases
to a maximum and then decreases with increasing oil content of the flow.
Fibre optic tubes are used in the device shown to convey light from the source and from the
scattered light window to the photo-cell. The motor-driven rotating disc with its slot, lets each
light shine alternately on the photo-cell and also, by means of switches at the periphery, causes
the signals to be passed independently to a comparator device, These two methods briefly
described, could be used together to improve accuracy, but they will not distinguish between oil
and other particles in the flow.
Methods of checking for oil by chemical test would give better results but take too long in a
situation where excess amounts require immediate shut down of the oily water separator.
Figures are given in next slide.
Figure 1: Monitor for oily water using direct light
Figure 2:Monitor based on scattered light
Oily Water Separator
As a seafarer on a merchant ship or as a ship manager/owner of a vessel, one of the
biggest nightmares is that of any kind of oil pollution accident from a ship. A ship produces
oil and water mixture on a daily basis which needs to be separated from each other, before
discharging the dirty water out of ship using equipment such as oily water separator.
MARPOL has a regulation under ANNEX I which limits the oil content in the bilge water
that vessel can legitimately discharge into the sea. It is now a requirement for all vessels
to have an oil discharge monitoring and control system along with an oil filtering
equipment known as the Oily Water Separator (OWS).
As the name indicates, the function of oily water separator is to separate maximum
amount of oil particles from the water to be discharged overboard from engine room or
cargo hold bilges, oil tanks and oil-contaminated spaces. As per maritime regulations, the
oil content in the water processed from the OWS must be less than 15 parts per million of
oil.
Regulation for Oily Water Separator:
As per Annex 1 of MARPOL under regulation 4 specified under paragraphs 2, 3, and 6, any
direct discharge of oil or oily water mixture into the sea shall be prohibited. The regulation
further explains how an oily water mixture can be treated on-board and can be discharged
out at sea:
Oil Water Discharge Regulation-
For a ship with 400 GT and above, discharge of oil mixture can be done under the following
conditions:
1. The ship is en route;
2. The oily mixture is processed through an oil-water separator filter meeting the
requirements of regulation 14 of this Annex;
3. After passing the oil-water separator system, the oil content of the effluent without
dilution does not exceed 15 parts per million;
4. The oily mixture does not originate from cargo pump-room bilges on oil tankers;
5. In oil tanker ship, the oil-water mixture is not mixed with oil cargo residues
Important Oily Water Separator (OWS) requirement:
1. As per the MEPC 107(49), the bilge alarm or an Oil Content Monitors, which provides for

internal recording of alarm conditions, must be certified by an authorized organization

2. The OCM provided with the oily water separator must be tamper-proof

3. The OCM must activate and sound an alarm whenever freshwater is used for cleaning or

zeroing purposes

4. Separator capable of achieving 15 ppm on type C emulsion

Construction and Working of Oily Water Separator

(OWS)

OWS consists of mainly three segments:

1. Separator unit

2. The Filter unit

3. Oil Content Monitor and Control Unit

Construction and Working of Oily Water Separator (OWS)
Gravitational separator
Oily Water Separator (OWS) – Simplest Form
Separator unit
1. This unit consists of catch plates which are inside a coarse separating compartment and
an oil collecting chamber.
2. Here the oil having a density which is lower than that of the water, which makes the
former rise into the oil collecting compartment and the rest of the non-flowing oil
mixture settle down into fine settling compartment after passing between the catch
plates.
3. After a period of time, more oil will separate and collect in the oil collecting chamber.
The oil content of water which passes through this unit is around 100 parts per million
of oil.
4. A control valve (pneumatic or electronic) releases the separated oil into the designated
OWS sludge tank.
5. The heater may be incorporated in this unit for smooth flow and separation of oil and
water.
6. A heater may be incorporated in this unit either on the middle or sometimes in the
bottom part of the unit (depending upon the area of operation and capacity of the
separator equipment) for smooth flow and separation of oil and water.
7. The first stage helps in removing some physical impurities to achieve fine filtration in
The Filter unit
1. This is a separate unit whose input comes from the discharge of the first unit.
2. This unit consists of three stages – filter stage, coalescer stage and collecting
chamber.
3. The impurities and particles are separated by the filter and are settled at the
bottom for removal.
4. In the second stage, coalescer induces coalescence process in which oil droplets
are joined to increase the size by breaking down the surface tension between oil
droplets in the mixture.
5. These large oil molecules rise above the mixture in the collecting chamber and are
removed when required.
6. The output from this unit should be less than 15 ppm to fulfil legal discharge
criteria.
7. If the oil content in water is more than 15 ppm then maintenance work such as
Oil Content Monitor and Control Unit
1. This unit functions together in two parts – monitoring and controlling.
2. The ppm of oil is continuously monitored by Oil Content Monitor (OCM); if the ppm
is high it will give an alarm and feed data to the control unit.
3. The control unit continuously monitors the output signal of OCM and if alarm
arises, it will not allow the oily water to go overboard by means of operating 3-way
solenoid valve.
4. There are normally 3 solenoid valves commanded by the control unit. These are
located in the first unit oil collecting chamber, second unit oil collecting chamber
and one in the discharge side of the oily water separator which is a 3-way valve.
5. The 3-way valve inlet is from the OWS discharge, where one outlet is to overboard
and the second outlet is to OWS sludge tank.
6. When OCM gives an alarm, 3-way valve discharges oily mixture in the sludge tank.
Viscosity monitoring
Viscosity control of fuels is essential if
correct atomization is to take place.
Increasing the temperature of a fuel will
reduce its viscosity and vice versa. As a
result of the varying properties of marine
fuels, often within one tank, actual
viscosity must be continuously measured
and then corrected by temperature
adjustment. The sensing device is shown in
Figure. A small constant speed gear pump
forces a fixed quantity of oil through a
capillary (narrow bore) tube. The liquid flow
in the capillary is such that the difference
in pressure readings taken before the
capillary and after it is related to the oil
viscosity. A differential pressure gauge is
calibrated to read viscosity and the
pressure values are used to operate the
heater control to maintain some set
viscosity value.
What is Oil Mist Detector (OMD) ?
The purpose of this detector is to detect the presence of oil mist at the concentration-
levels well below the limit at which a crankcase explosion is liable to trigger.

FIG.: Oil Mist Detector(OMD)

Explain its (OMD) construction and working.
Crankcase Oil Mist Detector Working - 1
It basically comprises two parallel tubes of similar size, each having a photo-electric cell
(these are light sensitive and generate an electric current which is proportional to the
intensity of the light falling on their surface) fitted at one end. The lenses seal the tubes
but allow light to pass.
Two identical beams of light from the centrally positioned same lamp, are reflected by
mirrors to pass along the tubes on to the cells.
One of the tubes contains clean air and is called the reference tube. The other tube has
connections through which the vapours of the crankcase are drawn by means of an
electrically-driven extractor fan.
Explain its (OMD) construction and working.
Crankcase Oil Mist Detector Working - 2
It basically comprises two parallel tubes of similar size, each having a photo-electric cell
Sampling points are normally fitted to each cylinder crankcase and their connections are
led to a rotating-selector-valve, which repeatedly connects each sampling point to the
measuring tube, in proper sequence.
If the concentration of the oil-mist is present in a certain sample, light shall be obscured
before reaching the cell of the measuring tube, the electrical balance will be disturbed and
an alarm will be operated.
At the detection point, the rotator stops to indicate, which sampling point is to be
investigated. After testing, the samples are led away to the atmosphere.
What maintenance are to be done on OMD?
The detector must be reset before the alarm ceases and then the sampling procedure will

resume its cyclic monitoring. The detector should be tested periodically and its sensitivity

and zero-setting checked. The lenses and mirror should be kept cleaned.