Precipitation
Group 1:
1. Aprilyn Mae Datiles 5. John Cris Dizon
2. Elyanna Maree Garcia 6. Jonnah Mae Gargoles
3. Emherielle Rioros Daniel7. Kessah Marie Lim
4. Irish Lavinia Laude 8. Trisha Alliyah Roxas
What is Precipitation?
Is the water that falls from the atmosphere in either
liquid or solid form. It results from the condensation of
moisture in the atmosphere due to the cooling of a
parcel of air. The most common cause of cooling is
dynamic or adiabatic lifting of the air.
Formation of Precipitation
FORMATION OF PRECIPITATION
Precipitation occurs in various forms. Rain is precipitation that is in the liquid
state when it reaches the earth. Snow is frozen water in a crystalline state,
while hail is frozen water in a 'massive' state. Sleet is melted snow that is an
intermixture of rain and snow.
There are three conditions that need to be met prior to precipitation forming:
1. Cooling of the atmosphere
2. Condensation onto nuclei
3. Growth of the water/ice droplets.
Atmospheric Condensation Water droplet
01 cooling 02 nuclei 03 growth 04 Dewfall
Cooling of the atmosphere may Cooling of the atmosphere may The same process of
Water or ice droplets formed
take place through several condensation occurs in dewfall,
take place through several around condensation nuclei are only in this case the water
different mechanisms occurring different mechanisms occurring normally too small to fall vapour condenses into liquid
independently or simultaneously. independently or simultaneously. directly to the ground; that is, water after coming into contact
The most common form of The most common form of the forces from the upward with a cold surface. In humid-
cooling is from the uplift of air cooling is from the uplift of air temperate countries dew is a
draught within a cloud are
through the atmosphere. As air common occurrence in autumn
through the atmosphere. As air greater than the gravitational when the air at night is still
rises the pressure decreases; rises the pressure decreases; forces pulling the microscopic warm but vegetation and other
Boyle’s Law states that this will Boyle’s Law states that this will droplet downwards. surfaces have cooled to the point
lead to a corresponding cooling lead to a corresponding cooling where water vapour coming into
in temperature. in temperature. contact with them condenses
onto the leaves and forms dew.
PRECIPITATION DISTRIBUTION
The amount of precipitation falling over a location varies
both spatially and temporally (with time). The different
influences on the precipitation can be divided into static
and dynamic influences.
Static influences on
precipitation distribution
Altitude
It has already been explained that temperature is a critical factor in
controlling the amount of water vapour that can be held by air. The cooler the
air is, the less water vapour can be held.
Aspect
The influence of aspect is less important than altitude but it may still play
an important part in the distribution of precipitation throughout a catchment.
Static influences on
precipitation distribution
Slope
The influence of slope is only relevant at a very small scale. Unfortunately
the measurement of rainfall occurs at a very small scale (i.e. a rain gauge). The
difference between a level rain gauge on a hillslope, compared to one parallel
to the slope, may be significant.
Forms of
Precipitation
Types of
Precipitation
Types of Precipitation
There are mainly three types of precipitation:
[Link] Precipitation
[Link] Precipitation
[Link] Precipitation
Convective Precipitation
Convective Precipitation is
caused by rising the ring of
warmer, lighter air in colder,
dense surroundings. as the air
warms, Air molecules begin to
move further apart. With
Increased Distance between
molecules, the molecules are less
densely packed. Thus, the aor
becomes “lighter” and rises
rapidly into the atmosphere. As
Orographic Precipitation
Orographic Precipitation
results from a mechanical
lifting over mountain
barriers. Orographic
precipitation results when
warm moist air moving
across the ocean is forced to
rise by large mountains. As
the air rises, it cools.
Cyclonic Precipitation
It results to from the lifting of
air converging into low-pressure
area, or cyclone. A cyclonic storm
is a large, low pressure system
that forms when a warm air mass
and a cold air mass collide. This
collision often occurs under the
polar-front jet stream which
spreads cold, dry arctic air near
warm, moist tropical air. The
rotation of the earth causes the air
to circulate in a counterclockwise
Two Kinds of Cyclonic Precipitation
(i) Frontal Precipitation :
If the line of demarcation between cold and warm air is
sharp. It is called a front in case of temperature contrast
heavy precipitation is usually located near fronts. The
precipitation along and associated with the front is known
as frontal precipitation.
(ii) Non frontal Precipitation :
In the case of the non-frontal precipitation. The moist
warm air mass is stationary and the moving cold air mass
meets it. Thus due to the lightness of warm air, there is
the passive ascent of warm over cold air owing to the
Rainfall Characteristics
Rainfall Characteristics
Depth: Rainfall depth refers to the amount of rain that has fallen over a
specific area during a specific period of time. It is typically measured in
millimeters or inches and is an important factor in understanding and
predicting weather patterns, water availability, and the impact of precipitation
on the environment.
Duration: The duration refers to the length of time rainfall occurs. A high
intensity rainfall for a short duration may affect tender seedlings, but it will not
likely have much effect on soil erosion and runoff. Rainfall of longer duration
can significantly affect infiltration, runoff, and soil erosion processes.
Rainfall Characteristics
Intensity Rainfall: intensity is defined as the ratio of the total amount of rain
(rainfall depth) falling during a given period to the duration of the period it is
expressed in depth units per unit time, usually as mm per hour (mm/h)
However, the intensity and duration can have a large influence on whether the
rainfall infiltrates or becomes surface runoff. Higher rainfall intensity produces
larger size raindrops which have more impact energy, and thus higher
intensity storms can damage delicate vegetation and bare soil. High intensity
storms can literally displace soil particles, causing soil crusting or starting the
soil erosion process. High Intensity storms may also overwhelm the soils
ability to infiltrate the rainfall at the same rate, causing infiltration-excess
runoff.
Hyetograph
is a graphical representation of the relationship between the rainfall intensity and time. It
is the plot of the rainfall intensity drawn on the ordinate axis against time on the abscissa
axis. The hyetograph is a bar diagram. The area under the hyetograph gives the total
rainfall occurred in that period. This chart is very useful in representing the
characteristics of storm, and is particularly important in developing the design storm to
predict extreme floods.
Point Rainfall
Measurement
Different type
of Rain Gauges
Introduction on Rain Gauge
A rain gauge is a type of instrument used by meteorologists and hydrologists
to gather and measure the amount of liquid precipitation over a set period of
time.
History of Rain Gauge
● The first known rainfall records were kept by the Ancient Greeks,about 500
B.C. this was followed 100 years later by people in India using bowl to
record the rainfall.
● While some sources state that the much later cheugugi of Korea was the
world’s first gauge, other sources say that Jang Yeong-sil developed or
refined an existing gauge. In 1661, Christopher Wren created the first
tipping-bucket rain gauge in Britain.
Principles of Rain Gauges
● Most rain gauges generally measure the precipitation in millimeters. The
level of rainfall sometimes reported as inches or centimeters.
● Rain gauge amounts are read either manually or by automatic weather
station (AWS). The frequency of readings will depend on the requirements
of the collection agency.
● In most cases the precipitation is not retained, however some stations do
submit rainfall (and snowfall) for testing, which is done to obtain levels of
pollutants.
● Another problem encountered when the temperature is close to or below
freezing. Rain may fall on the funnel and ice or snow may collect in the
gauge and not permit any subsequent rain to pass through.
01 Standard rain gauge
The standard NOAA rain gauge, developed around the
start of the 20th century , consists of a funnel attached to a
graduated cylinder (2 cm in diameter) that fits inside a larger
TYPES outside container (20 cm in diameter and 50 cm tall).
OF
RAIN
GAUGE 02 Weighing precipitation gauge
S A weighing-type precipitation gauge consists of a storage
bin,which is weighed to record the mass.
03 Tipping bucket rain gauge
The tipping bucket rain gauge consists of a funnel that
collects and channels the precipitation into a small see-
sawlike container. After a pre-set amount of precipitation
TYPES falls,the lever tips, dumping the collected water and sending
an electrical signal.
OF
RAIN
GAUGE 04 Optical rain gauge
S These have a row of collection funnels. In an enclosed space
below each is a laser diode and a phototransistor
[Link] enough water is collected to make a single
drop, it drips from the bottom, falling into the laser beam
path.
05 Acoustic rain gauge
The acoustic disdrometer developed by Stijn de Jong is an
acoustic rain gauge. The big advantage of this design is that
it is lot less costly
TYPES
OF
RAIN
GAUGE
S
ESTIMATION
OF MISSING
RAINFALL DATA
ESTIMATION OF MISSING
DATA
• The point observation from a precipitation
gage may have a short break in the record
because of instrument failure, absence of the
observer or any other reasons.
• Thus, it is often necessary to estimate the
missing record using data from the neighboring
station.
• The station whose data is missing is called
interpolation station and gauging stations
whose data are used to calculate the missing
station data are called index stations.
The following methods are most commonly used for estimating the missing
records.
[Link] Mean Method
[Link] Ratio Method
1. Arithmetic Mean Method
Where:
Px = Precipitation at the missing location “X”
P₁ to Pn = precipitation at the n surrounding rain gauge
stations
N = Number of rain gauges Stations
EXAMPLE:
A watershed has four rain gauge stations, A, B, C, and D. During
a storm rain gauge station A was inoperative, while stations B,
C, and D surrounding station A. recorded rainfall of 48mm,
51mm and 45mm respectively. Estimate the missing location
precipitation of Station A, using arithmetic mean method.
Let, Station A as Px
Given: Find: Solution:
(P₁) Station B = 48mm (Px) Station A = ? 1/N [P₁+P₂+P₃]
(P₂) Station C = 51mm ⅓[48+51+45]
(P₃) Station D = 45mm Px = 48mm
N=3
2. Normal Ratio Method
Where:
Px = Precipitation at the missing location “X”
P₁ to Pn = precipitation at the n surrounding rain gauge stations
Nx = normal annual rain at gauges station “X”
N₁ to Nn = Normal annual rainfall at n surrounding rain gauge
stations
N = Number of rain gauges Stations
EXAMPLE:
A precipitation station X was inoperative for some time during
which a storm occurred. The storm totals at three stations A, B
and C surrounding D, were respectively 6.60, 4.80, and 3.70 cm.
The normal annual precipitation amounts at stations A, B, C and
D are respectively 72.6 51.8, 38.2, and 65.6 cm. Estimate the
Precipitation at the missing location “D” using Normal Ratio
method.
GIVEN: Let, Station D (Precipitation) as Px
N=3 Station D (Normal Annual precipitation) as Nx SOLUTION:
STATION A B C D
Precipitation (P₁) = (P₂) = (P₃)=3.70 Find: Px = ?
(cm) 6.60 4.80
Normal Annual (N₁) = (N₂) = (N₃) = Nx = 65.6
precipitation 72.6 51.8 38.2
(cm)
Conversion of Point Rainfall to
Areal Rainfall
Conversion of Point Rainfall to
Areal Rainfall
The representative precipitation over a defined area is required in
engineering applications, whereas the gaged observation pertains to point
precipitation. The areal precipitation is computed from the record of a
group of rain gages within the area by the following methods.
1. Arithmetic or station average method
2. Weighted average method
2.b. Thiessen polygon method
2.b. Isohyetal method
Arithmetic Average Method
The arithmetic-mean method is the simplest method of determining areal average
rainfall. It involves averaging the rainfall depths recorded at a number of gages. This
method is satisfactory if the gages are uniformly distributed over the area and the
individual gage measurements do not vary greatly about the mean.
2. Thiessen Polygon Method
If some gauges are considered more representative of the area in question than others, then relative weights may be assigned to the gauges
in computing the areal average. The Thiessen method assumes that at any point in the watershed the rainfall is the same as that at the
nearest gauge so the depth recorded at a given gauge is applied out to a distance halfway to the next station in any direction.
The relative weights for each gauge are determined from the corresponding areas of application in a Thiessen polygon network, the
boundaries of the polygons being formed by the perpendicular bisectors of the lines joining adjacent gauges.
These polygons are formed as follows:
1. The stations are plotted on a map of the area drawn to a scale.
2. The adjoining stations are connected by dashed lines.
3. Perpendicular bisectors are constructed on each of these dashed lines, as shown by the solid lines. 4. These bisectors form polygons
around each station. Each polygon is representative of the effective area for the station within the polygon. For stations close to the
boundary, the boundary forms the closing limit of the polygons.
5. The area of each polygon is determined* and then multiplied by the rainfall value for the station within the polygon.
6. The sum of item 5 divided by the total drainage area provides the weighted average precipitation.
2.a Thiessen Polygon Method
* This is done by a graphic tool like AutoCAD or a planimeter or, alternatively, by drawing the figure to a
scale on graph paper, counting the total number of squares covered by the polygon, and multiplying by the
square of the map scale
The Thiessen method is generally more accurate than the arithmetic mean method, but it is inflexible,
because a new Thiessen network must be constructed each time there is a change in the gauge network,
such as when data is missing from one of the gauges. Also, the Thiessen method does not directly account
for orographic influences on rainfall.
2. b. Isohyetal Method
The isohyetal method overcomes some of these difficulties by constructing isohyets, using observed depths at rain gages
and interpolation between adjacent gages. Where there is a dense network of rain gauges, isohyetal maps can be
constructed using computer programs for automated contouring.
This is the most accurate of the three methods and provides a means of considering the orographic (mountains) effect.
The procedure is as follows:
1. The stations and rainfall values are plotted on a map to a suitable scale.
2. The contours of equal precipitation (isohyets) are drawn. The accuracy depends on the construction of the isohyets and
their intervals.
3. The area between successive isohyets is computed and multiplied by the numerical average of the two contour
(isohyets) values.
4. The sum of item 3 divided by the drainage area provides the weighted average precipitation.
The average precipitation is then computed using the formula:
2. b. Isohyetal Method
The isohyetal method overcomes some of these difficulties by constructing isohyets, using observed depths at rain gages and
interpolation between adjacent gages. Where there is a dense network of rain gauges, isohyetal maps can be constructed using
computer programs for automated [Link] is the most accurate of the three methods and provides a means of
considering the orographic (mountains) effect. The procedure is as follows:
1. The stations and rainfall values are plotted on a map to a suitable scale.
2. The contours of equal precipitation (isohyets) are drawn. The accuracy depends on the construction of the isohyets and their
intervals.
3. The area between successive isohyets is computed and multiplied by the numerical average of the two contour (isohyets)
values.
4. The sum of item 3 divided by the drainage area provides the weighted average precipitation.
The average precipitation is then computed using the formula:
Double Mass Analysis
DOUBLE MASS ANALYSIS
It is a technique used in hydrology and climatology to assess the consistency between observed and recorded
precipitation data. It involves plotting the cumulative distribution of observed precipitation against the cumulative
distribution of a reference dataset, often a long-term climatological record. The comparison helps identify trends,
patterns, or shifts in precipitation behavior over time, aiding in the understanding of regional climate variations
and potential impacts on water resources.
Furthermore, Changes in the location or exposure of a rain gage may have a significant effect on the amount of
precipitation it measures, leading to inconsistent data (data of different nature within the same record).
