Chapter 7

Bone Tissue

ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY

The Unity of Form and Function
TENTH EDITION
KENNETH S. SALADIN

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 Introduction 1
• In this chapter we will cover:
– Bone tissue composition
– How bone functions, develops, and grows
– How bone metabolism is regulated and
some of its disorders

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 Introduction 2
• Most durable remains: Bones and teeth____
• Living skeleton
• Continually remodels itself and interacts with
other organ systems of the body
• Osteology____________ is the study of bone

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 7.1 Tissues and Organs
of the Skeletal System
• Expected Learning Outcomes
– Name the tissues and organs that compose the
skeletal system.
– Describe the major functions of the skeletal system.
– Distinguish between bones as a tissue and as an
organ.
– Describe the types of bones classified by shape.
– Describe the general features of a long bone with an
emphasis on the region of longitudinal growth and a
flat bone.
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 Tissues and Organs of the Skeletal System

• Skeletal system—composed of bones,

cartilages, and ligaments
– Cartilage—function? support, cushion
between bones
– Ligaments—function?made out of dense
regular conective tissue conects bone to
bone
– Tendons—function? Conect muscle to bone
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 Functions of the Skeleton
• Support
• Protection
• Movement
• Electrolyte balance—calcium &
phosphate_____ levels
• Acid–base balance—buffers blood against
large pH changes by altering phosphate and
carbonate salt levels
• Blood formation

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 Bones and Osseous Tissue
• Bone (osseous tissue)—connective tissue with
the matrix hardened by calcium phosphate and
other minerals

• Mineralization or calcification—the hardening

process of bone

• Individual bones (organs) consist of bone tissue,

bone marrow, cartilage, adipose tissue, nervous
tissue, and fibrous connective tissue
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 Classification of Bones by shape_________

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 General Features of Bones 1
• Flat bones: examples:Skull bones and sternum

• Long bones: examples:Arm and leg bones

• Short bones: examples:Tarsals and carpals

• Irregular bones: examples? Vertebrae

• What are the other 2 types?

• Sutural (wormian) bones
• Sesamoid bones
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 General Features of Bones 2
• Compact bone
– dense outer shell of bone

• Spongy (cancellous) bone

– internal honeycomb of
trabeculae_________ filled with red or
yellow bone marrow

• Skeleton three-fourths compact and one-

fourth spongy bone by weight

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 Structure of a Long Bone
Diaphysis—shaft that
provides leverage
Epiphyses—enlarged ends
of a long bone
Epiphyseal line: separates
diaphysis from epiphysis
A.K.A. Metaphysis
Marrow cavity A.K.A
medullary cavity
Figure 7.1
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 General Features of Bones 3
• Articular cartilage —Made of which type of cartilage?
• Nutrient foramina. Hyaline cartilage
• Periosteum— 2 layers covering most of bone
– Outer fibrous layer made of collagen_________
• Some fibers continuous with tendons
• Perforating fibers —penetrate into bone matrix
– Inner osteogenic layer of bone-forming cells
• Important to bone growth and healing of
fractures
• Endosteum —thin layer of reticular connective tissue
lining marrow cavity
– Contains osteoblasts and osteoclasts

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 General Features of Bones 4
• Epiphyseal plate (growth plate)
– Area of ___hyaline_______cartilage that
separates epiphyses and diaphyses of children’s
bones
– Enables growth in lenght_______________
– When growth is finished turns into Epiphyseal
line

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 General Features of Bones 5
• Long bone
– Epiphyses
– Diaphysis
– Compact bone
– Spongy bone
– Marrow cavity
– Articular cartilage
– Periosteum
– Endosteum
Figure 7.1
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 Anatomy of a Flat Bone

• Sandwich-like
• Two layers of compact
bone with a middle layer of
spongy bone
• Diploë—spongy middle
layer
– Absorbs shock
– Marrow spaces lined
with endosteum

Figure 7.2 of
9th edition

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 Anatomy of a Flat bone 2

Figure7.2

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 7.2 Histology of Osseous Tissue
• Expected Learning Outcomes
– List and describe the cells, fibers, and
ground substance of bone tissue.
– State the importance of each constituent of
bone tissue.
– Identify the internal structural components
of compact bone and spongy bone.
– Distinguish between the two types of bone
marrow.
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 4 Types of Bone Cells 1
• Osteogenic cells
– stem cells (cell division) and develop into osteoblasts
• ____osteoblasts__________—bone-forming cells
– How do they make bone? Produce collagen and carbohydrate protein
complexes, release it to outside of cell make a soft fibrous matrix, then minerals
deposit into the matrix

– What two organelles would they possess? Rough er and

golgi complexes
• Osteocytes— mature bone cells
– Found in pockets called lacunae____________
– Connected to each other by canaliculi and gap junctions
– Some reabsorb bone matrix & others deposit it; regulates bone
remodeling. Also strain sensors
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 Bone Cells 4
• Osteoclasts—
– bone-dissolving cells found on bone surface
– Derived from fusion of multiple stem cells
– Usually multinucleate
– Secrete enzymes_________________ and
acids__________ for the break down of bone
(resorption or osteolysis)

• Enzymes - break down the collagen fibers

• Acids - dissolve the minerals

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 Bone Cells and Their Development

(a) Osteocyte development

(b) Osteoclast development

Figure 7.3

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 The Matrix 1
• Organic Portion (one-third)
– synthesized by osteoblasts
– Composed of collagen and carbohydrate–protein
complexes
– Responsible for the ______fexibility________of bone
• Inorganic Portion (two thirds)
– 85% hydroxyapatite (calcium phosphate)
– 10% calcium carbonate
– 5% other minerals (fluoride, sodium, potassium,
magnesium)
– Responsible for the hardness__________ of bone
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7-22

The Matrix

• Disorder: If there is a mineral deficiency, what

happens to the bone?
-Rickets

• Disorder: If there is a defect in collagen

deposition, what happens to the bone?
-Osteogenesis imperfecta (brittle bone
disease)

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 Histology of Osseous Tissue

• Histology of compact
bone reveals osteons
(haversian systems)

Figure 7.4b,c,d

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 Haversian system of Osteon
▪ Lamellae____________________________
▪ Columns of the matrix (mainly collagen) that are
weight bearing
▪ Run concentric, circumferential, and interstitially
▪ Central (Haversian canal)
▪ Contains blood vessels and nerves
▪ Perforating (Volkmann’s) canals
▪ Channels that connect blood and nerves from
periosteum to the central (Haversian) canal

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 Microscopic structure of compact bone

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 Cross section (osteon) of dried compact bone

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 Spongy Bone
• Lattice of bone covered with endosteum
– Trabeculae_____ (thin plates of bone)
– Spaces filled with _red bone_marrow
– Few osteons and no central canals

• Provides strength with minimal weight

– Trabeculae develop along bone’s lines of stress

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 Bone Marrow
• Bone marrow—soft tissue occupying marrow
cavities of long bones and small spaces of
spongy bone
– Red marrow
• Contains hemopoietic tissue—produces
blood cells
– Yellow marrow
• found in adults
• Stores Triglycerides__________
• Can transform back to red marrow in the
event of chronic anemia
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 Hematopoietic Tissue (Red Marrow)
Infants – in nearly every bone
– 1. medullary cavity
– 2. all areas of spongy bone

Adults
– 1. head of the femur________ and
humerus
– 2. ___diploë__________(spongy bone)
of flat bones
– 3. some irregular bones (such as hip__
and vertebrae)
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 Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Adult Distribution
of Red and Yellow
Bone Marrow

Figure 7.6

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 7.3 Bone Development
• Expected Learning Outcomes
– Describe intramembranous ossification and
endochondral ossification mechanisms of
bone formation
– Explain how mature bone continues to grow
and remodel itself.
– Compare and contrast the function of
osteoblasts and osteoclasts during bone
growth, repair, and remodeling

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 Bone Development
• Ossification or osteogenesis—the formation
of bone
• In the human fetus and infant, bone develops
by two methods
– Intramembranous ossification
– Endochondral ossification

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 Intramembranous Ossification

• Bone develops within a fibrous connective

tissue membrane
• Mesenchymal cells Osteoblasts____
osteocytes__________ (spongy
bone)
• Forms the flat bones of the skull,
Clavicles___________, and ossifies the
fontanels.
• Most of these bones are remodeled
(destroyed and reformed) as we grow to adult
size.
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 Intramembranous Ossification 1

1) Deposition of osteoid tissue into embryonic 2) Calcification of osteoid tissue and entrapment
mesenchyme of osteocytes

3) Honeycomb of spongy bone with developing 4) Filling of space to form compact bone at
periosteum surfaces, leaving spongy bone in middle

Produces flat bones of skull and clavicle in fetus Figure 7.7

Thickens________ long bones throughout life
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 Endochondrial Ossification

• Bone forms by replacing ___hyaline___cartilage

• Forms most the bones of the body below the
skull (except the clavicle)
• Mesenchyme chondroblasts
will die and be replaced by osteoblasts
spongy bone compact bone

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 Endochondral Ossification

Growth of cartilage model

Primary Ossification: Diaphysis________

Secondary ossification: Epiphysis______

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 Endochondral Ossification 1

1) Early cartilage model

2) Formation of 3) Vascular invasion, 4) Bone at birth, with 5) Bone of child, with 6) Adult bone with a
primary ossification formation of primary enlarged primary epiphyseal plate at single marrow
center, bony collar, marrow cavity, and marrow cavity and distal end cavity and closed
and periosteum appearance of appearance of epiphyseal plate
secondary secondary marrow
ossification center cavity in one epiphysis

Figure 7.9

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 Endochondral Ossification 2
• During infancy and childhood, the epiphyses
fill with spongy bone

• Cartilage limited to the articular cartilage____

covering each joint surface, and to the
epiphyseal plate________________________
– Serves as a growth zone for bone elongation

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 The Fetal Skeleton at 12 Weeks

© Biophoto Associates/Science Source

Figure 7.10

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 Bone Growth and Remodeling
• Ossification continues throughout life with
the growth and remodeling of bones

• Bones grow in two directions

– Length
– Width

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 Bone Growth in Length

• Occurs at Epiphyseal plates

• Cartilage cells undergo mitosis, pushing the
epishysis______ away from the
diaphysis______________
• Cartilage cells die and are replaced by bone
• When growth is finished, no more cartilage at
plate
– forms Epiphyseal line_____________
– Bone can no longer grow in length

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 X-Ray of Child’s Hand

© Jim Wehtje/Getty Images RF

Figure 7.11

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 Dwarfism
• Achondroplastic dwarfism
– Long bones stop growing in
childhood
• Normal torso, short limbs
– Failure of cartilage growth in
metaphysis
– Spontaneous mutation
produces mutant dominant
allele
• Pituitary dwarfism
– Lack of growth hormone
– Normal proportions with short
stature
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 Bone Widening and Thickening
• Appositional growth —occurs at bone surface
– Continual growth in diameter and thickness
– Intramembranous ossification
– Osteoblasts of inner periosteum deposit
osteoid tissue
• Lay down matrix in layers parallel to surface
• Forms circumferential lamellae________
• Osteoclasts of endosteum enlarge marrow
cavity

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 Bone Remodeling in Adults
• 10% of skeleton per year, new skeleton every 10 years
• Remodeled by
– Osteoblasts___________________: Bone
deposition
– Osteoclasts___________________: Bone
resorption
• Wolff’s law of bone:
– Bone grows or remodels in response to the
demands placed on it
– Exercise: promotes__________ bone growth
– Lack of exercise (bedridden): bone loses mass
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 Homeostasis (covered in 1.6)1
• Expected Learning Outcomes
– Define homeostasis and explain why this concept is
central to physiology.
– Define negative feedback, give an example of it, and
explain its importance to homeostasis.
– Lists the components of a feedback loop and explain
the function of each
– Application of homeostatic mechanisms.
– Define positive feedback and give examples of its
beneficial and harmful effects.

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 7.4 Physiology of Osseous Tissue
• Expected Learning Outcomes
– Describe the processes by which minerals are added
to and removed from bone tissue.
– Describe the role of the bones in regulating blood
calcium and phosphate levels.
– Explain the roles of calcitriol, calcitonin, and
parathyroid hormone in regulation of bone
physiology and describe their effects.
– Explain the hormonal regulation of skeleton growth.
– Contrast the remodeling processes of a child (birth to
adolescence).
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 Homeostasis and Negative Feedback 1
• Homeostasis—the ability to detect change, activate mechanisms
that oppose it, and thereby maintain relatively stable internal
conditions
• Negative feedback allows for dynamic equilibrium within a
limited range around a set point
– The body senses a change and “negates” or reverses it
– The fundamental mechanism to keep body in homeostasis
• Loss of homeostatic control causes illness or death

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 Homeostasis and Negative Feedback 2
• Because feedback mechanisms alter the original changes
that triggered them, they are called feedback loops.
• Homeostasis in body temperature
– If too warm, vessels dilate in the skin and sweating begins
(heat-losing mechanism)
– If too cold, vessels in the skin constrict and shivering begins
(heat-gaining mechanism)

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 Negative Feedback in Thermoregulation (a)
Figure 1.7a

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 Negative Feedback in Thermoregulation (b)
Figure 1.7b

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 Homeostatic
Compensation
for a Postural
Change in Blood
Pressure

Figure 1.8

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 Homeostasis and Negative Feedback 3
• Components of feedback loops
• Receptor—structure that senses change in the body
(chemical, temperature, pain, pressure, volume, etc.)
• Integrating (control) center—control center that
processes the sensory information, “makes a decision,”
and directs the response (e.g., cardiac center of the
brain)

• Effector— cell or organ that carries out the final

corrective action to restore homeostasis (e.g., the heart)

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 Positive Feedback and Rapid Change
• Self-amplifying cycle
– Leads to greater change in the same direction
– Feedback loop is repeated—change produces more change

• Normal way of producing rapid changes

– Examples include: childbirth, blood clotting, protein digestion, and
generation of nerve signals

• Can sometimes be dangerous

– Example: vicious circle of runaway fever

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 Positive
Feedback in
Childbirth

Figure 1.9

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 Calcium Homeostasis 1
• Phosphate is a component of DNA, RNA, ATP,
phospholipids, and pH buffers
• Calcium needed in neuron communication,
muscle contraction, blood clotting, and
exocytosis
• Minerals are deposited in the skeleton and
withdrawn when they are needed for other
purposes

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 Mineral Deposition and Resorption 1
• Mineral deposition (mineralization)—process in which
calcium, phosphate, and other ions are taken from
blood and deposited in bone
– ____Osteoblasts_________produce collagen fibers
• Fibers become encrusted with minerals
• First few crystals act as seed crystals that attract
more calcium and phosphate
– Abnormal calcification (ectopic ossification)
• Formation of a calculus_______ (calcified mass)
in lung, brain, eye, muscle, tendon, or artery
(arteriosclerosis)

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 Mineral Deposition and Resorption 2
• Mineral resorption—process of dissolving bone
and releasing minerals into blood
– Performed by osteoclasts
• Pump hydrogen to extracellular fluid (chloride
follows). Hydrochloric acid (pH 4) dissolves bone
minerals
• Produce an enzyme which digests collagen in an
acidic environment

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 Calcium Homeostasis
• Calcium homeostasis depends on a balance between
• Intake: diet
• Loss: urinary and fecal losses
• Balance maintained by exchange between osseous
tissue and blood
• Calcium homeostasis is regulated by three
hormones:
– Calcitriol, calcitonin, and parathyroid hormone

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 Calcitriol (Vitamin D)2
• Calcitriol is a hormone that raises___ blood
calcium levels
– Mainly, it increases calcium absorption by small
intestine
– It also increases calcium resorption from the
skeleton
– It weakly promotes kidney reabsorption of calcium
ions, so less lost in urine
• Produced by actions of skin, liver, and kidneys

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7-61

Calcitriol
• Calcitriol is necessary
for bone deposition

• Lack of calcitriol results

in abnormal softness of
bones
– in children:
rickets__________
– in adults:
osteomalacia______
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 Calcitonin
• Produced by thyroid________ gland
• Release triggered by high_______ blood
calcium
• _Lowers___blood calcium concentration in 2
ways:
– Inhibits osteoclasts
– Stimulates osteoblasts
• Important in children, weak effect in adults
(except may inhibit bone loss in pregnant and
lactating women)
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 Parathyroid Hormone
• Produced by parathyroid_________ glands
• Release triggered by low_______ blood calcium
• PTH increases__________ blood calcium 4 ways
– Stimulates osteoclast population and bone
resorption
– Promotes calcium reabsorption by kidneys
– Promotes calcitriol synthesis
– Inhibits osteoblasts, inhibiting bone
deposition

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 Hormonal Control of Calcium Balance

Figure 7.14

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Negative Feedback Loops in Calcium Homeostasis

(a) Correction for hypercalcemia

Figure 7.17a
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Negative Feedback Loops in Calcium Homeostasis
1

(b) Correction for hypocalcemia Figure 7.17b

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 Calcium Homeostasis 2
• Hypocalcemia—__low________ blood calcium
– Effects: causes overly excitable nervous system and
tetany (muscle spasms)
• Laryngospasm
– Some cases are caused by vitamin D deficiency or
underactive parathyroid glands
– Pregnancy and lactation increase risk of hypocalcemia
• Hypercalcemia—__excessive____ calcium levels
– Makes nerve and muscles less excitable
• Can cause emotional disturbance, muscle
weakness, sluggish reflexes, cardiac arrest
– Hypercalcemia rarely occurs
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 Bone Development Until Early Adulthood

• Infancy and childhood

– epiphyseal plate activity is stimulated by
Human Growth Hormone (hGH)__________
• Puberty (__testosterone and estrogens____)
– promote adolescent growth spurts
– differentiates the male/female skeleton
– bone growth ends (18-21 years)

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 Other Factors Affecting Bone 2
• Girls grow faster than boys and reach full
height earlier
– Estrogen_______ has stronger effect than
testosterone on bone growth
• Males grow for a longer time and also taller
• Anabolic steroids cause growth to stop
– Epiphyseal plate “closes” prematurely
– Results in abnormally short adult stature

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 7.5 Bone Disorders
• Expected Learning Outcomes
– Name and describe several bone diseases.
– Name and describe the types of fractures.
– Explain how a fracture is repaired.
– Predict factors or situations affecting the
skeletal system that could disrupt homeostasis.
– Predict the types of problems that would occur
in the body if the skeletal system could not
maintain homeostasis.
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7-71

Fractures and Their Repair

• Stress___________ fracture: break caused by
abnormal trauma to a bone

• Pathological________ fracture: break in bone

weakened by disease (cancer or osteoporosis)

• Fractures classified by structural characteristics

– Displaced vs nondisplaced
– Open vs closed
Open has broken through the skin, closed has not

Ends of broken bone are out of place or still aligned together.

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 Types of Bone Fractures

• Figure
7.18
• rightsa:reserved.
©McGraw-Hill Education. All © WatneyAuthorized
Collection/Medical Images;
only for b: © Howard
instructor Kingsnorth/The
use in the classroom.Image Bank/Getty Images;
No reproduction c: © Lester
or further V. Bergman/Corbis
distribution permittedNX/Getty
withoutImages; d: ©
the prior Biophoto
written Associates/Science
consent Source
of McGraw-Hill Education.
 Healing of Fractures

1) Hematoma formation 2) Soft callus formation 3) Hard callus formation 4) Bone remodeling
The hematoma is converted to Deposition of collagen and Osteoblasts deposit a temporary Small bone fragments are
granulation tissue by invasion fibrocartilage converts granulation bony collar around the fracture to removed by osteoclasts, while
of cells and blood capillaries. tissue to a soft callus. unite the broken pieces while osteoblasts deposit spongy
ossification occurs. bone and then convert it to
compact bone.

Figure 7.18

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 The Treatment of Fractures
• Closed_____ reduction—procedure in which
bone fragments are manipulated into their
normal positions without surgery
• Open______ reduction—involves surgical
exposure of the bone and the use of plates,
screws, or pins to realign the fragments

• Cast—normally used to stabilize and

immobilize healing bone

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 Open Reduction of a Tibial Fracture

© Southem Illinois University/Science Source

Figure 7.20

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 Other Bone Disorders
• Osteoporosis—the most common bone disease
– Affects spongy bone the most since it is the most
metabolically active
– Subject to pathological fractures of hip, wrist,
and vertebral column
– Hyperkyphosis (widow’s hump)—deformity of
spine due to vertebral bone loss
– Complications of loss of mobility are pneumonia
and thrombosis

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 Osteoporosis 1
• Estrogen maintains bone density in both
sexes; inhibits resorption by osteoclasts

• Postmenopausal white women at greatest risk

• Osteoporosis also seen in young female

athletes with low body fat causing them to
stop ovulating and decrease estrogen
secretion

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 Osteoporosis 2

• Treatments
– Estrogen replacement therapy (ERT)
– Certain medications destroy osteoclasts
– Best treatment is prevention: exercise and a
good bone-building diet between ages 25
and 40

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 Spinal Osteoporosis

Left: © David Gregory & Debbie Marshall/Wellcome Images/Science Source; Middle: © Dr. P. Marazzi/Science Source; Right: © Phanie/Alamy Stock Photo

Figure 7.21

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