The Tissue Level
of Organization
Aaron Opoku Antwi, PhD.
Dept. of Pharmacology
Ist Floor, New Pharmacy Block
Tissue
▷ Group of similar cells and cell
products that
arise from the same region of the
embryo and work together to
perform a specific structural or
physiological role in an organ 2
Origin of Tissues
• Primary germ layers within the
embryo
– endoderm
– mesoderm
– ectoderm
• Tissue derivations
– epithelium from all 3 germ layers
– connective tissue & muscle from
mesoderm
– nerve tissue from ectoderm
3
Tissues
▷ Group of similar cells
○ common embryonic origin
○ common function
▷ Histology
○ study of tissues
▷ Pathologist
○ looks for tissue changes that
indicate disease; forensic
pathology?? 4
Tissues
▷ Biopsy
• Removal of living tissue for
microscopic examination
– surgery
– needle biopsy
• Useful for diagnosis, especially
cancer
• Tissue preserved, sectioned and
stained before microscopic viewing;
micrographs? 5
6
7
Cell Junctions
▷ Points of contact between adjacent plasma
membranes.
▷ Depending on their structure, cell junctions
may serve one of three functions.
○ form fluid-tight seals between cells.
○ anchor cells together or to extracellular
material.
○ act as channels, which allow ions and
mol. to pass from cell to cell within a
tissue
8
Cell Junctions • Tight junctions
• Adherens junctions
• Gap junctions
• Desmosomes
• Hemidesmosomes
9
Tight Junctions
• Watertight seal
between cells
• Plasma membranes
fused with a strip of
proteins
• Common between
cells that line GI and
bladder
10
Adherens Junctions
• Holds epithelial cells
together
• Structural components
– plaque = dense layer of
proteins inside the cell
membrane
– microfilaments extend into
cytoplasm
– integral membrane proteins
connect to membrane of
other cell
11
Gap Junctions•
Tiny space between
plasma membranes of 2
cells
• Crossed by protein
channels called connexons
forming fluid filled tunnels
• Cell communication with
ions & small molecules
• Muscle and nerve
impulses spread from cell 12
Desmosomes • Resists cellular
separation and cell
disruption
• Similar structure to
adherens junction
except intracellular
intermediate
filaments cross
cytoplasm of cell
• Cellular support of
13
Hemidesmosomes
• Half a
desmosome
• Connect cells to
extracellular
material
– basement
membrane
14
4 Basic Types of Tissues
▷ Epithelial Tissue They differ in:
1.Types of cells
▷ Connective Tissue
2.Functions OF
▷ Muscle Tissue cells
3.C’tics of matrix
▷ Nerve Tissue surrounding cells
4.Ratio of cells to 15
EPITHELIAL TISSUE
in contact
“
covers surfaces because cells are
lines hollow organs, cavities and
ducts
forms glands when cells sink
16
General Features
Closely packed cells forming continuous
sheets
Cells sit on basement membrane
Apical (upper) free surface
Avascular---without blood vessels
nutrients diffuse in from underlying connective
tissue
Good nerve supply
Rapid cell division
Covering / lining versus glandular types
17
Basement Membrane
Basal lamina
from epithelial cells
collagen fibers
Reticular lamina
secreted by connective
tissue cells
reticular fibers
holds cells to
connective tissue
guide for cell
migration during 18
Types of Epithelium
Covering and lining epithelium
epidermis of skin
lining of blood vessels and ducts
lining respiratory, reproductive, urinary &
GI tract
Glandular epithelium
secreting portion of glands
thyroid, adrenal, and sweat glands
19
Classifiction of Epithelium
Classified by arrangement of cells into
layers
simple = one cell layer thick
stratified = many cell layers thick
pseudostratified = single layer of
cells where all cells don’t reach apical
surface
20
nuclei at found at different levels so it looks
Classifiction of Epithelium
Classified by shape of surface cells
squamous =flat
cuboidal = cube-shaped
columnar = tall column
transitional = shape varies with
tissue stretching
21
Epithilium
22
Simple Squamous
Epithelium
Single layer of flat cells
lines blood vessels (endothelium), body
cavities (mesothelium)
very thin --- controls diffusion, osmosis and
filtration
nuclei centrally located
Cells in direct contact with each other
23
Examples of Simple
Squamous
Surface view of Section of intestinal
lining of peritoneal showing serosa
cavity 24
Simple Cuboidal Epithelium
Single layer of cube-shaped cells viewed from the
side
Nuclei round and centrally located
Lines tubes of kidney
Absorption or secretion 25
Example of Simple
Cuboidal
Sectional view of kidney tubules
26
Epithelium
Single layer of cube-shaped cells viewed from the
side
nuclei are round and centrally located
lines tubes of kidney
adapted for absorption or secretion 27
Nonciliated Simple Columnar
Single layer rectangular cells
Unicellular glands =goblet cells secrete mucus
lubricate GI, respiratory, reproductive and urinary
systems
Microvilli = fingerlike cytoplasmic projections
for absorption in GI tract (stomach to anus) 28
Eg. Nonciliated Simple
Columnar
Section from small intestine
29
Columnar
Single layer rectangular cells
Unicellular glands (goblet cells) secrete mucus
lubricate GI, respiratory, reproductive and urinary
systems
Microvilli (non-motile, fingerlike membrane projections)
30
adapted for absorption in GI tract (stomach to
Ciliated Simple Columnar
Epithelium
Single layer rectangular cells with cilia
Mucus from goblet cells moved along
by cilia 31
Eg. Ciliated Simple
Columnar
Section of uterine tube
32
Pseudostratified Columnar
• Single cell layer
• All cells attach to
basement
membrane but not
all reach free
surface
• Nuclei at varying
depths
• Respiratory
system, male
urethra &
33
epididymis
Stratified Squamous
Epithelium
Several cell layers thick
Surface cells flat
Keratinized = surface
cells dead and filled
with keratin
skin (epidermis)
Nonkeratinized = no
keratin in moist living
cells at surface 34
Example of Stratified
Squamous
• Section of vagina
35
Papanicolaou Smear (Pap
smear)
• Collect sloughed off cells of
uterus and vaginal walls
• Detect cellular changes
(precancerous cells)
• Annually for women over 18 or if
sexually active
36
Ciliated Simple Columnar
Epithelium
Single layer rectangular cells with cilia
Unicellular glands (goblet cells) secrete mucus
Cilia (motile membrane extensions) move mucous
found in respiratory system and in uterine 37
Stratified Cuboidal
Epithelium
• Multilayered
• Surface cells
cuboidal
– rare (only found in
sweat gland ducts38
Stratified Columnar Epithelium
Multilayered
Surface cells columnar
Rare (very large ducts & part of male
urethra) 39
Transitional Epithelium
Multilayered
Surface cells varying in shape from round to flat if
stretched
Lines hollow organs that expand from within
(urinary bladder)
40
Glandular Epithelium
• Derived from epithelial cells that sank below the surface
during development
• Exocrine glands
– cells that secrete---sweat, ear wax, saliva, digestive
enzymes onto free surface of epithelial layer
– connected to the surface by tubes (ducts)
– unicellular glands or multicellular glands
• Endocrine glands
– secrete hormones into the bloodstream
– hormones help maintain homeostasis
41
Structural Classification of
Exocrine Glands
• Unicellular are single-celled glands
– goblet cells
• Multicellular glands
– branched (compound) or unbranched
(simple)
– tubular or acinar (flask-like) shape
42
Examples of Simple Glands
• Unbranched ducts = simple glands
• Duct areas are blue
43
Examples of Compound Glands
• Which is acinar? Which is tubular?
44
Duct of Multicellular Glands
• Sweat gland duct
• Stratified cuboidal epithelium 45
Simple Cuboidal Epithelium
46
CONNECTIVE
TISSUE
“
material found between cells
supports and binds structures
together
stores energy as fat
provides immunity to disease
47
Connective Tissue
48
Connective Tissue
• Comprises a different array of :
Cells (fibroblasts, mast cells, plasma cells etc.)
Fibres (collagen, reticular and elastin)
Ground substance (chondroitin sufate,
fibronectin etc.)
49
Cell Types
• Blast type cells = retain ability to divide & produce matrix
(fibroblasts, chondroblasts, & osteoblasts)
• Cyte type cells = mature cell that can not divide or produce matrix
(chondrocytes & osteocytes)
• Macrophages develop from monocytes
– engulf bacteria & debris by phagocytosis
• Plasma cells develop from B lymphocytes
– produce antibodies that fight against foreign substances
• Mast cells produce histamine that dilate small BV
• Adipocytes (fat cells) store fat
50
Tissue Fiber types
• Collagen (25% of protein in your body)
– tough, resistant to pull, yet pliable
– formed from the protein collagen
• Elastin (lungs, blood vessels, ear cartilage)
– smaller diameter fibers formed from protein elastin
surrounded by glycoprotein (fibrillin)
– can stretch up to 150% of relaxed length and
return to original shape
• Reticular (spleen and lymph nodes)
– thin, branched fibers that form framework of
organs
– formed from protein collagen 51
Clinical note: Marfan Syndrome
• Inherited disorder of fibrillin
coding gene
• Abnormal development of elastic
fibers
• Tendency to be tall with very long
legs, arms, fingers and toes
• Life-threatening weakening of
aorta may lead to rupture
52
Ground Substance
• Supports the cells and fibers
• Helps determine the consistency of the matrix
– fluid, gel or solid
• Contains many large molecules
– hyaluronic acid is thick, viscous and slippery
– condroitin sulfate is jellylike substance providing
support
– adhesion proteins (fibronectin) binds collagen fibers
to ground substance
53
Types of Connective tissue
• Fibrous Connective tissue
Reticular, areolar and Adipose (fat)
• Supportive Connective tissue
Bone and cartilage
• Fluid connective tissue
blood and lymph
54
Fibrous Connective Tissue
• Loose connective tissue
• Dense connective tissue
55
Loose Connective Tissues
• Loosely woven fibers throughout tissues
• Types of loose connective tissue
– areolar connective tissue
– adipose tissue
– reticular tissue
56
Areolar Connective Tissue
• Cell types = fibroblasts, plasma cells, macrophages, mast cells and a few
white blood cells
• All 3 types of fibers present
• Gelatinous ground substance 57
Areolar Connective Tissue
• Black = elastic fibers,
• Pink = collagen fibers
• Nuclei are mostly fibroblasts
58
Adipose Tissue
• Peripheral nuclei due to large fat storage droplet
• Deeper layer of skin, organ padding, yellow marrow
• Reduces heat loss, energy storage, protection
• Brown fat found in infants has more blood vessels and mitochondria and
responsible for heat generation 59
Liposuction or Suction Lipectomy
• Suctioning removal of
subcutaneous fat for body
contouring
• Dangers include fat emboli,
infection, injury to internal organs
60
Reticular Connective Tissue
• Network of fibers & cells that produce framework of organ
• Holds organ together (liver, spleen, lymph nodes, bone marrow)
61
Dense Connective Tissue
• More fibers present but fewer cells
• Types of dense connective tissue
– dense regular connective tissue
– dense irregular connective tissue
– elastic connective tissue
62
Dense Regular Connective Tissue
• Collagen fibers in parallel bundles with fibroblasts between
bundles of collagen fibers
• White, tough and pliable when unstained (forms tendons)
• Also known as white fibrous connective tissue 63
Dense Irregular Connective Tissue
• Collagen fibers are irregularly arranged (interwoven)
• Tissue can resist tension from any direction
• Very tough tissue -- white of eyeball, dermis of skin
64
Elastic Connective Tissue
• Branching elastic fibers and fibroblasts
• Can stretch & still return to original shape
• Lung tissue, vocal cords, ligament between vertebrae
65
Supportive: Cartilage
• Network of fibers in rubbery ground
substance
• Resilient and can endure more stress than
loose or dense connective tissue
• Types of cartilage
– hyaline cartilage
– fibrocartilage
– elastic cartilage
66
Hyaline Cartilage
• Bluish-shiny white rubbery substance
• Chondrocytes sit in spaces called lacunae
• No blood vessels or nerves so repair is very slow
• Reduces friction at joints as articular cartilage 67
Fibrocartilage
• Many more collagen fibers causes rigidity &
stiffness
• Strongest type of cartilage (intervertebral
discs) 68
Elastic Cartilage
• Elastic fibers help maintain shape after deformations
• Ear, nose, vocal cartilages
69
Growth & Repair of Cartilage
• Grows and repairs slowly because is avascular
• Interstitial growth
– chondrocytes divide and form new matrix
– occurs in childhood and adolescence
• Appositional growth
– chondroblasts secrete matrix onto surface
– produces increase in width
70
Supportive: Bone (Osseous) Tissue
• Spongy bone
– sponge-like with spaces and trabeculae
– trabeculae = struts of bone surrounded by red bone
marrow
– no osteons (cellular organization)
• Compact bone
– solid, dense bone
– basic unit of structure is osteon (haversian system)
• Protects, provides for movement, stores minerals, site of
blood cell formation 71
Compact Bone
• Osteon = lamellae (rings) of mineralized matrix
– calcium & phosphate---give it its hardness
– interwoven collagen fibers provide strength
• Osteocytes in spaces (lacunae) in between lamellae
• Canaliculi (tiny canals) connect cell to cell 72
Fluid: Blood
• cells (erythrocytes), white blood cells (leukocytes) Connective tissue with a
liquid matrix = the plasma
• Cell types = red blood nd cell fragments called platelets
• Provide clotting, immune functions, carry O2 and CO2
73
Fluid: Lymph
• Interstitial fluid being transported in
lymphatic vessels
• Contains less protein than plasma
• Move cells and substances (lipids) from
one part of the body to another
74
Membranes
• Epithelial layer sitting on a thin layer of
connective tissue (lamina propria)
• Types of membranes
– mucous membrane
– serous membrane
– synovial membrane
– cutaneous membrane (skin)
75
Membranes
76
Mucous Membranes
• Lines a body cavity that opens to the
outside
– mouth, vagina, anus etc
• Epithelial cells form a barrier to microbes
• Tight junctions between cells
• Mucous is secreted from underlying
glands to keep surface moist
77
Serous Membranes
• Simple squamous cells overlying loose CT layer
• Squamous cells secrete slippery fluid
• Lines a body cavity that does not open to the outside
such as chest or abdominal cavity
• Examples
– pleura, peritoneum and pericardium
– membrane on walls of cavity = parietal layer
– membrane over organs in cavity = visceral layer
78
Synovial Membranes
• Line joint cavities
of all freely
movable joints
• No epithelial
cells---just special
cells that secrete
slippery fluid
79
MUSCLE TISSUE
“
cells shorten in length producing
movement
Provide us with motion, posture
and heat
80
Muscle tissue
Types of muscle
▷skeletal muscle
▷cardiac muscle
▷smooth muscle
81
Skeletal Muscle
Cells are long
cylinders with many
peripheral nuclei
Visible light and
dark banding (looks
striated)
Voluntary or
conscious control
82
Cardiac Muscle
• Cells are branched cylinders with one central nuclei
• Involuntary and striated
83
Cardiac Muscle
• Attached to and communicate with each other by
intercalated discs and desmosomes 84
Smooth Muscle
• Spindle shaped cells
with a single central
nuclei
• Walls of hollow
organs (blood vessels,
GI tract, bladder)
• Involuntary and
nonstriated
85
NERVE TISSUE
“
cells that conduct electrical
signals
detects changes inside and
outside the body
responds with nerve impulses
86
Nerve Tissue
• Cell types -- nerve cells and neuroglial
(supporting) cells
• Nerve cell structure
– nucleus & long cell processes conduct nerve
signals
• dendrite --- signal travels towards the cell
body
• axon ---- signal travels away from cell
body 87
Nerve Tissue
88
Tissue Engineering
• New tissues grown in the laboratory (skin &
cartilage)
• Scaffolding of cartilage fibers is substrate for cell
growth in culture
• Research in progress
– insulin-producing cells (pancreas)
– dopamine-producing cells (brain)
– bone, tendon, heart valves, intestines & bone
marrow 89
Tissue Repair: Restoring Homeostasis
• Worn-out, damaged tissue must
be replaced
• Fibrosis = replacement with
stromal connective tissue cells
90
Tissue Repair: Restoring Homeostasis
• Regeneration = replacement with
original cell types (parenchymal
cells)
– some cell types can divide (liver &
endothelium)
– some tissues contain stem cells that can
divide
• bone marrow, epithelium of gut & skin
91
Important Clinical Terminology
• Regeneration versus fibrosis
• Granulation tissue
– very actively growing connective
tissue
• Adhesions
– abnormal joining of tissue
– occurs after surgery or inflammation 92
Conditions Affecting Tissue Repair
• Nutrition
– adequate protein for structural
components
– vitamin C production of collagen
and new blood vessels
• Proper blood circulation
– delivers O2 & nutrients & removes
fluids & bacteria 93
Conditions Affecting Tissue Repair
• With aging
– collagen fibers change in quality
– elastin fibers fragment and
abnormally bond to calcium
– cell division and protein synthesis
are slowed
94
Sjogren’s Syndrome
• Autoimmune disorder producing
exocrine gland inflammation
• Dryness of mouth and eyes
• 20 % of older adults show some
signs
95
Systemic Lupus Erythematosus (SLE)
• Autoimmune disorder -- causes
unknown
• Chronic inflammation of connective
tissue
• Nonwhite women during childbearing
years
• Females 9:1 (1 in 2000 individuals)
• Painful joints, ulcers, loss of hair, fever 96
