Arithmetic Coding
How we can do better than
Huffman? - I
As we have seen, the main drawback of
Huffman scheme is that it has problems when
there is a symbol with very high probability
Remember static Huffman redundancy bound
redundancy p1 0.086
where p1 is the probability of the most likely
simbol
Gabriele Monfardini - Corso di Basi di Dati Multimediali a.a. 2005-2006 2
How we can do better than
Huffman? - II
The only way to overcome this limitation is to
use, as symbols, “blocks” of several
characters.
In this way the per-symbol inefficiency is
spread over the whole block
However, the use of blocks is difficult to
implement as there must be a block for every
possible combination of symbols, so block
number increases exponentially with their
length
Gabriele Monfardini - Corso di Basi di Dati Multimediali a.a. 2005-2006 3
How we can do better than
Huffman? - III
Huffman Coding is optimal in its
framework
static model adaptive Huffman
blocking
one symbol, one word
arithmetic
coding
Gabriele Monfardini - Corso di Basi di Dati Multimediali a.a. 2005-2006 4
The key idea
Arithmetic coding completely bypasses the
idea of replacing an input symbol with a
specific code.
Instead, it takes a stream of input symbols and
replaces it with a single floating point number
in [0,1)
The longer and more complex the message, the
more bits are needed to represents the output
number
Gabriele Monfardini - Corso di Basi di Dati Multimediali a.a. 2005-2006 5
The key idea - II
The output of an arithmetic coding is, as usual,
a stream of bits
However we can think that there is a prefix 0,
and the stream represents a fractional binary
number between 0 and 1
01101010 0.01101010
In order to explain the algorithm, numbers will
be shown as decimal, but obviously they are
always binary
Gabriele Monfardini - Corso di Basi di Dati Multimediali a.a. 2005-2006 6
An example - I
String bccb from the alphabet {a,b,c}
Zero-frequency problem solved initializing at 1
all character counters
When the first b is to be coded all symbols
have a 33% probability (why?)
The arithmetic coder maintains two numbers,
low and high, which represent a subinterval
[low,high) of the range [0,1)
Initially low=0 and high=1
Gabriele Monfardini - Corso di Basi di Dati Multimediali a.a. 2005-2006 7
An example - II
The range between low and high is divided
between the symbols of the alphabet,
according to their probabilities
high 1
(P[c]=1/3) c
0.666
7
(P[b]=1/3) b
0.333
3
(P[a]=1/3) a
low 0
Gabriele Monfardini - Corso di Basi di Dati Multimediali a.a. 2005-2006 8
An example - III
b
high 1 high = 0.6667
c
0.666
7
b
0.333
3
a
low = 0.3333
low 0
P[a]=1/4
new probabilities P[b]=2/4
P[c]=1/4
9
An example - IV
c
high 0.666 high = 0.6667
(P[c]=1/4) 7 c
0.583 new probabilities
4 P[a]=1/5
P[b]=2/5
(P[b]=2/4) b
P[c]=2/5
0.416
(P[a]=1/4) 7 a
low 0.333 low = 0.5834
3
Gabriele Monfardini - Corso di Basi di Dati Multimediali a.a. 2005-2006 10
An example - V
c
high 0.666 high = 0.6667
7
(P[c]=2/5) c new probabilities
P[a]=1/6
0.633 P[b]=2/6
4 P[c]=3/6
(P[b]=2/5) b
(P[a]=1/5) 0.600
1 a
low 0.583 low = 0.6334
4
Gabriele Monfardini - Corso di Basi di Dati Multimediali a.a. 2005-2006 11
An example - VI
b
high 0.666 high = 0.6501
7
(P[c]=3/6)
c Final interval
0.650 [0.6390,0.6501)
(P[b]=2/6)
1 we can send 0.64
b
(P[a]=1/6) 0.639
0 a
low 0.633 low = 0.6390
4
Gabriele Monfardini - Corso di Basi di Dati Multimediali a.a. 2005-2006 12
An example - summary
Starting from the range between 0 and 1 we
restrict ourself each time to the subinterval
that codify the given symbol
At the end the whole sequence can be codified
by any of the numbers in the final range (but
mind the brackets...)
Gabriele Monfardini - Corso di Basi di Dati Multimediali a.a. 2005-2006 13
An example - summary
1
1/3
0.6667
c 0. 0. 6667
1/4
c 6667
2/5 c 3/6 c
0.666 0.5834
0.6501
0.6334 2/6 b
7
2/4 0.6390
1/3 b 2/5
b b 0.6334 a
0.4167 0.6001 1/6
1/5 a
0.333 1/4 0.
3 a
0.3333 5834
1/3 a
[0.6390, 0.6501) 0.64
0
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Another example - I
Consider encoding the name BILL GATES
Again, we need the frequency of all the
characters in the text.
chr freq.
space 0.1
A 0.1
B 0.1
E 0.1
G 0.1
I 0.1
L 0.2
S 0.1
T 0.1
Gabriele Monfardini - Corso di Basi di Dati Multimediali a.a. 2005-2006 15
Another example - II
character probability range
space 0.1 [0.00, 0.10)
A 0.1 [0.10, 0.20)
B 0.1 [0.20, 0.30)
E 0.1 [0.30, 0.40)
G 0.1 [0.40, 0.50)
I 0.1 [0.50, 0.60)
L 0.2 [0.60, 0.80)
S 0.1 [0.80, 0.90)
T 0.1 [0.90, 1.00)
Gabriele Monfardini - Corso di Basi di Dati Multimediali a.a. 2005-2006 16
Another example - III
chr low high
0.0 1.0
B 0.2 0.3
I 0.25 0.26
L 0.256 0.258
L 0.2572 0.2576
Space 0.25720 0.25724
G 0.257216 0.257220
A 0.2572164 0.2572168
T 0.25721676 0.2572168
E 0.257216772 0.257216776
S 0.2572167752 0.2572167756
The final low value, 0.2572167752 will uniquely encode
the name BILL GATES
Gabriele Monfardini - Corso di Basi di Dati Multimediali a.a. 2005-2006 17
Decoding - I
Suppose we have to decode 0.64
The decoder needs symbol probabilities, as it
simulates what the encoder must have been
doing
It starts with low=0 and high=1 and divides
the interval exactly in the same manner as the
encoder (a in [0, 1/3), b in [1/3, 2/3), c in [2/3,
1)
Gabriele Monfardini - Corso di Basi di Dati Multimediali a.a. 2005-2006 18
Decoding - II
The trasmitted number falls in the interval
corresponding to b, so b must have been the
first symbol encoded
Then the decoder evaluates the new values for
low (0.3333) and for high (0.6667), updates
symbol probabilities and divides the range
from low to high according to these new
probabilities
Decoding proceeds until the full string has
been reconstructed
Gabriele Monfardini - Corso di Basi di Dati Multimediali a.a. 2005-2006 19
Decoding - III
0.64 in [0.3333, 0.6667) b
0.64 in [0.5834, 0.6667) c...
and so on...
Gabriele Monfardini - Corso di Basi di Dati Multimediali a.a. 2005-2006 20
Why does it works?
More bits are necessary to express a number
in a smaller interval
High-probability events do not decrease very
much interval range, while low probability
events result a much smaller next interval
The number of digits needed is proportional to
the negative logarithm of the size of the
interval
Gabriele Monfardini - Corso di Basi di Dati Multimediali a.a. 2005-2006 21
Why does it works?
The size of the final interval is the product of
the probabilities of the symbols coded, so the
logarithm of this product is the sum of the
logarithm of each term
So a symbol s with probability Pr[s] contributes
log Pr[ s]
bits to the output, that is equal to symbol
probability content (uncertainty)!!
Gabriele Monfardini - Corso di Basi di Dati Multimediali a.a. 2005-2006 22
Why does it works?
For this reason arithmetic coding is nearly
optimum as number of output bits, and it is
capable to code very high probability events in
just a fraction of bit
In practice, the algorithm is not exactly
optimal because of the use of limited precision
arithmetic, and because trasmission requires
to send a whole number of bits
Gabriele Monfardini - Corso di Basi di Dati Multimediali a.a. 2005-2006 23
A trick - I
As the algorithm was described until now, the
whole output is available only when encoding
are finished
In practice, it is possible to output bits during
the encoding, which avoids the need for higher
and higher arithmetic precision in the
encoding
The trick is to observe that when low and high
are close they could share a common prefix
Gabriele Monfardini - Corso di Basi di Dati Multimediali a.a. 2005-2006 24
A trick - II
This prefix will remain forever in the two
values, so we can transmit it and remove from
low and high
For example, during the encoding of “bccb”, it
has happened that after the encoding of the
third character the range is low=0.6334,
high=0.6667
We can remove the common prefix, sending 6
to the output and transforming low and high
into 0.334 and 0,667
Gabriele Monfardini - Corso di Basi di Dati Multimediali a.a. 2005-2006 25
The encoding step
To code symbol s, where symbols are
numbered from 1 to n and symbol i has
probability Pr[i]
s 1
low_bound = i 1 Pr[i]
high_bound = i 1 Pr[i]
s
range = high - low
low = low + range * low_bound
high = low + range * high_bound
Gabriele Monfardini - Corso di Basi di Dati Multimediali a.a. 2005-2006 26
The decoding step
The symbols are numbered from 1 to n and
value is the arithmetic code to be processed
Find s such that
s 1
(value low) s
i 1
Pr[i ]
(high low)
Pr[i]
i 1
Return symbol s
Perform the same range-narrowing step of the encoding step
Gabriele Monfardini - Corso di Basi di Dati Multimediali a.a. 2005-2006 27
Implementing arithmetic coding
As mentioned early, arithmetic coding uses
binary fractional number with unlimited
arithmetic precision
Working with finite precision (16 or 32 bits)
causes compression be a little worser than
entropy bound
It is possible also to build coders based on
integer arithmetic, with another little
degradation of compression
Gabriele Monfardini - Corso di Basi di Dati Multimediali a.a. 2005-2006 28
Arithmetic coding vs. Huffman coding
In typical English text, the space character is
the most common, with a probability of about
18%, so Huffman redundancy is quite small.
Moreover, this is an upper bound
On the contrary, in black and white images,
arithmetic coding is much better than Huffman
coding, unless a blocking technique is used
A A. coding requires less memory, as symbol
representation is calculated on the fly
A A. coding is more suitable for high
performance models, where there are
confident predictions
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Arithmetic coding vs. Huffman coding
H H. decoding is generally faster than a.
decoding
H In a. coding it is not easy to start decoding in
the middle of the stream, while in H. coding
we can use “starting points”
In large collections of text and images,
Huffman coding is likely to be used for the
text, and arithmeting coding for the images
Gabriele Monfardini - Corso di Basi di Dati Multimediali a.a. 2005-2006 30
Lempel-Ziv (LZ) Coding
a) It assigns a fixed length codeword to a variable length of
symbols.
b) Unlike Huffman coding and arithmetic coding, this coding
scheme does not require a priori knowledge of the
probabilities of the source symbols.
c) The coding is based on a “dictionary” or “codebook”
containing the source symbols to be encoded. The coding
starts with an initial dictionary, which is enlarged with the
arrival of new symbol sequences.
d) There is no need to transmit the dictionary from the encoder
to the
decoder. A Lempel-Ziv decoder builds an identical dictionary
during the
decoding process. 31
Lempel-Ziv (LZ) Coding
• Suppose we have the intensity values: 32 32 34 32 34 32 32 33
32 32 32 34
• At the beginning, consider a dictionary of size 256 locations
(numbered 0 to 255) that contain entries corresponding to each
pixel intensity value in the range 0-255.
• When we encounter the first pixel of intensity 32, we do not
encode it and wait for the second pixel to arrive.
• When the next pixel intensity of 32 is encountered, we encode
the first pixel as 32, corresponding to its dictionary location
number; make a new entry to the dictionary at the location
number 256 to include the newly detected sequence 32-32 -
Next time we encounter this sequence , encode it as 256.
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LZ77/78 Coding Example
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