LEARNING THEORIES
BEHAVIORISM, COGNITIVISM, CONSTRUCTIVISM
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Behavioral Learning
Theory: Operant
Conditioning
Theorist
B. F. Skinner
Basic assumption
Voluntary responses are strengthened
or weakened as a result of their
consequences
Original research
Rats in Skinner boxes
2
Changing Behavior Using Operant
Conditioning
To increase behavior
Positive reinforcement
Negative reinforcement (escape or avoidance
conditioning)
To decrease behavior
Nonreinforcement
Punishment
3
Operant Conditioning
Concepts
Positive reinforcement
Strengthening (increasing) a behavior by
presenting a positive stimulus immediately after
the behavior has occurred
Negative reinforcement
Strengthening (increasing) a behavior by
removing a negative stimulus immediately after
the behavior has occurred
7-4
Operant Conditioning
Concepts
Presentation punishment (Type I)
Weakening (decreasing) a behavior by presenting
an aversive stimulus immediately after the
behavior has occurred
Removal punishment (Type II, time-out)
Weakening (decreasing) a behavior by removing
a positive stimulus immediately after the behavior
has occurred
7-5
Operant Conditioning
Concepts
Extinction
When a previously reinforced behavior decreases
in frequency and eventually ceases altogether
because reinforcement is withheld
Spontaneous recovery
When an extinguished/extinct behavior reappears
without having been reinforced
7-6
Operant Conditioning
Concepts
Generalization
When an individual learns to make a particular
response to a particular stimulus and then makes
the same or a similar response in a slightly
different situation
Discrimination
When an individual learns to notice the unique
aspects of seemingly similar situations and thus
different ways of responding
7-7
Operant Conditioning
Concepts
Shaping
Reducing complex behaviors into several more
simple behaviors
Reinforcing successive approximations to the
complex behavior
7-8
Steps in Shaping
Select the target behavior.
Obtain realistic baseline data.
Select potential reinforcers.
Reinforce successive approximations for the
target behavior each time they occur.
Reinforce the newly established target
behavior each time it occurs.
Reinforce the target behavior on a variable
reinforcement schedule.
7-9
Schedules of Reinforcement
Fixed interval schedule
Reinforcement occurs after a specific amount of time
Variable interval schedule
Reinforcement occurs after a random amount of time
Fixed ratio schedule
Reinforcement occurs after a specific number of
responses
Variable ratio schedule
Reinforcement occurs after a random number of
responses
7-10
Educational Applications of
Operant Conditioning Principles
Programmed instruction
Computer-based instruction (CBI)
Drill-and-practice programs
Simulation programs
Tutorial programs
Integrated learning systems (ILS)
7-11
Major Types of CBI Programs
(Grabe & Grabe, 2004)
Type of Program Purpose
Drill and Practice Practice knowledge and skills learned
earlier to produce fast and accurate
responses
Tutorial Teach new information (e.g., facts,
definitions, concepts) and skills
Probems-Solving Programs: Teach new information and skills and
Simulations and Games provide an opportunity to apply what
was learned in a meaningful context
that would otherwise be unavailable
because of cost, physical danger, and
time constraints
7-12
Educational Applications of
Operant Conditioning Principles
Behavior modification
Shaping
Token economies
Contingency contracts
Extinction, time-out, and response cost
Punishment
7-13
Criticisms of Behavior
Modification
Many students will eventually catch on to the
fact that they get reinforced only when they
do what the teacher wants them to do.
Behavior modification methods, because of
their potential power, may lend themselves to
inappropriate or even unethical uses.
7-14
Social Cognitive
Theory
The Triadic Reciprocal Causation Model
Self-Control, Self-Regulation, and Self-
Efficacy
Becoming a Self-Regulated Learner
Research on Social Cognitive Theory
Using Technology to Promote Self-
Regulated Learning
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Triadic Reciprocal Causation
Model
Personal characteristics
Mental and emotional factors such as goals,
anxiety, metacognition, and self-efficacy
Behavioral patterns
Include self-observation, self-evaluation, making
changes in behavior to overcome or reduce
perceptions, and creating productive study
environments
Environmental factors
An individual’s social and physical environment
9-16
Self Control, Self-Regulation,
& Self-Efficacy
Self control
Ability to control one’s actions in the absence of
external reinforcement or punishment
Self-regulation
The consistent and appropriate application of self-
control skills to new situations
Self-efficacy
How capable or prepared we believe we are for
handling particular kinds of tasks
9-17
Factors That Affect Self-
Efficacy
Performance accomplishments
Verbal persuasion
Emotional arousal
Vicarious experience
9-18
Behaviors Affected by Self-
Efficacy
Selection processes
Cognitive processes
Motivational processes
Affective processes
9-19
A Social Cognitive Model of Self-Regulated Skill
Learning
Level Main Requirement of the Learner Source of Motivation
Observation Attend to actions and verbalizations Vicarious: note rewards received by
of the model and discriminate the model and anticipate receiving
relevant from irrelevant behaviors similar rewards for exhibiting similar
behavior
Emulation Exhibit the general form of the Direct: feedback from the model
modeled behavior and/or others
Self-control Learn to exhibit the modeled Self-satisfaction from matching the
behavior automatically through self- standards and behavior of the model
directed practice (focus on the
underlying rule or process that
produces the behavior and compare
the behavior with personal standards
Self-regulation Learn to adapt the behavior to Self-efficacy beliefs; degree of
changes in internal and external intrinsic interest in the skill
conditions (such as the reactions of
others)
SOURCES: Zimmerman (2000, 2002); Zimmerman & Kitsantas (2002).
9-20
Effects of Modeling on Self-Efficacy,
Self-Regulation, and Achievement
Mathematics
Effect of peer models
Effect of perceived similarity in learning ability
Effect of self-modeling
Effect of learning-goal orientation
9-21
Effects of Modeling on Self-Efficacy,
Self-Regulation, and Achievement
Writing
Modeling for strategy development
Observing weak and strong models
Modeling versus practice
Observation and emulation
9-22
Using Technology to Promote
Self-Regulated Learning
Modeling
Providing Metacognitive Feedback
Providing Scaffolded Instruction
9-23
Constructivist Learning
Theory, Problem
Solving, and Transfer
Meaningful learning within a constructivist
framework
The nature of problem solving
Transfer of learning
Technology tools for knowledge construction
and problem solving
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Facets of Constructivism
Meaningful learning is the active creation of
knowledge structures from personal experience.
The essence of one person’s knowledge can
never be totally transferred to another person
because knowledge is the result of a personal
interpretation of experience.
Even though knowledge is personal people often
agree about what is true.
Additions to, deletions from, or modifications of
individuals’ knowledge structures come mainly
from the sharing of multiple perspectives.
10-25
Constructivism Today
Two variations on a constructivist theme
Cognitive constructivism
Emphasizes the development of meaningful learning
by focusing on the cognitive processes that take place
within individuals
Social constructivism
Emphasizes the development of meaningful learning
by focusing on culture and social interactions
10-26
Conditions That Foster
Constructivism
Cognitive apprenticeship
Teachers modeling cognitive processes that
students eventually take responsibility for as they
become more skilled
Situated learning
Giving learning tasks situated in realistic contexts
Multiple perspectives
Students should have the opportunity to view ideas
and problems from multiple ways
10-27
Limitations of Constructivism
Itis almost impossible to create highly
detailed lesson plans because so much
variation is possible.
Teaching from a constructivist perspective is
more time consuming and places higher
demands on learners as compared to a
typical lecture format.
Constructivism is not the only orientation to
learning that you will ever need.
10-28
Three Common Types of
Problems
Well-structured problems
Clearly formulated, solved by specific procedure,
solution evaluated against agreed-upon standard
Ill-structured problems
Complex, few clues to solution procedures, less-
definite criteria for measuring solution
Issues
Ill-structured problems that arouse strong feelings
10-29
Five Step Approach to
Problem Solving
Realize that a problem exists.
Understand the nature of the problem.
Compile relevant information.
Formulate and carry out a solution.
Evaluate the solution.
10-30
Systematic Framework for
Evaluation
Ask and answer a set of basic questions
(who, what, where, when, how).
Identify imperfections and complications.
Anticipate possible negative reactions from
other people.
Devise improvements.
10-31
Heuristics
Study worked examples.
Work on a simpler version of the problem.
Break the problem into parts.
Work backward.
Solve an analogous problem.
Create an external representation of the
problem.
10-32
What is transfer of learning?
Transfer of learning is…
Students independently apply knowledge and
skills to similar but new information.
10-33
Technology Tools for Knowledge
Construction and Problem Solving
Multimedia simulations
Computer-supported intentional learning environments
Learning through collaborative visualization
Jasper Woodbury and anchored instruction(The Jasper
Series is a technology-based program designed to motivate students
and help them learn to think and reason about complex problems. ...
The Jasper Series consists of video-based, narrative adventures that
pose complex problems for students to solve using information
embedded in the narrative).
Constructivist-oriented web sites
10-34
Putting It All Together
Learning Theory Learning Process Technology Support
Through positive/ Educational software
Behaviorism negative can be used to
reinforcement and measure the students
punishment assessment
Rehearsing Flashcards and
Cognitivism information and then memory games can
storing it for long term help retain information
use taught in a lesson
Constructing ones Group PowerPoint
Constructivism own knowledge projects allow students
through past to work together and
experiences and combine their
group collaboration knowledge to learn
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