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 LECTURES ON

Introduction to Microbiology

Dept. of Pharmacy
Chapter 1

Dr. Abdullah Akhtar Ahmed

Professor of Microbiology
 Topics Covered
Introduction to Microbiology:
Definition of microbe, microbiology
History of Microbiology
Importance of microbiology
Discussion
 Topics Covered
Introduction to Microbiology:
Microbiology as a field of biology and place of
micro-organism in the living field.
Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic groups of micro-
organism.
Field of application of microbiology.
Home task: Importance to study microbiology.
Merit and demerit of microbes.
 What is a microbe?

The word microbe (microorganism) is used

to describe an organism that is so small
that can not be seen without the use of a
microscope. e.g.
1.Viruses
2.Bacteria
3.Fungi (yeasts and molds)
4.Protozoa
5.Some algae
 What is Microbiology

Microbiology means the

study of microorganisms

Microorganisms include:

1.Bacteria
2.Virus
3.Fungi (yeasts and molds)
4.Parasite
5.Some algae
8
 History
Anton van Leeuwenhoek
 Made lenses or simple microscopes
• Magnification about 300x
 Discovered protozoa in drop of water
 Bacteria in plaque of teeth
 Father of Bacteriology & Protozoology

9
 A Brief History of
Microbiology
• Ancestors of bacteria were
the first life on Earth.
• The first microbes were
observed in 1673.
10
11
 Robert Koch
• 1st to prove that bacteria actually caused
diseases in 1876
• Microbial Etiology of Infectious Disease
 etiology - the cause of a disease
• Established “scientific rules” to show a
cause and effect relationship between a
microbe and a disease
 Koch’s Postulates
 Golden Age of Microbiology
1857 - 1914

• Pasteur Edward Jenner

vaccination
 Pasteurization
Paul Erlich
 Fermentation
1st synthetic drug used to treat
• Joseph Lister infections
 Phenol to treat surgical wounds Salvarsan - arsenic based
– 1st attempt to control chemical to treat Syphilis
“salvation” from Syphilis
infections caused by
microoganisms
• Robert Koch
 Koch’s Postulates
 Introduction
 Microorganisms are responsible for many of the changes
observed in organic and inorganic matter (e.g.,
fermentation and the carbon, nitrogen and sulfur cycles
that occurred in nature.

 Microbiology is a large discipline, which has a great impact

on other areas of biology and general human welfare
 Our world is populated by
invisible creatures too small
to be seen with the unaided
eye. These life forms, the
microbes or microorganisms,
may be seen only by
magnifying their image with a
microscope.
 Microbes make the Universe

•There are > 5 x 1030

types Microbes in the
world
•Humans have intimate
relation with Microbes >
90% of the cells in our
Body are Microbes

16
 Bacteria

• Range from beneficial to neutral to harmful.

Dr.T.V.Rao MD 18
 Microbial world
Organisms ) Infectious agents
(non-living)
Prokaryotes Eukaryotes viruses viroids prions
(unicellular)

Eubacteria Archaea Algae Fungi Protozoa Other

(unicellular) multicellular) (unicellular) (multicellular
organisms)
 Biology

• Biology is simply the study of life.

• Biology is concerned with all living things.
• There are many branches of biology.
• Every branch is the study of a group of
organism.
• Microbes are related to all life.
• The study of microbe is microbiology
Microbial Taxonomy

5 Kingdom System
 Nomenclature

 Linnaeus introduced the binomial system of

scientific nomenclature
 Each organism has two names: the genus and
species – Staphylococcus aureus
 Italicized or underline – Salmonella typhi
 Genus name is capitalized and species in lower
case.
 Scientific Names
Staphylococcus aureus
describes clustered arrangement of cells and golden
yellow color of colonies

Escherichia coli
Honors the discoverer, Theodor Escherich and
describes its habitat, the colon.

After the first use, scientific names may be abbreviated

with the first letter of the genus and full species
epithet. (Ex: E. coli)
 Prokaryotic Cell
Organisms may be divided into two main forms: prokaryotic
and eukaryotic

No membrane bound nucleus

Nucleoid = region of DNA concentration
Organelles not bound by membranes
 Eukaryotic Cells
• Nucleus bound by membrane
• Include fungi, protists, plant,
and animal cells
• Possess many organelles

Protozoan
 General Characteristics

 Prokaryotes no nucleus and

organelles

 Eukaryotes membrane bound nucleus

and organelles

 Acellular agents genomes contain either

DNA or RNA; newer agent
is proteinaceous
 Summary of differences!
Prokaryotic Cells Eukaryotic cells
small cells (< 5 mm) larger cells (> 10 mm)
always unicellular often multicellular
no nucleus or any membrane- always have nucleus and other
bound organelles membrane-bound organelles
DNA is circular, without proteins DNA is linear and associated
with proteins to form
chromatin
ribosomes are small (70S) ribosomes are large (80S)
no cytoskeleton always has a cytoskeleton
cell division is by binary fission cell division is by mitosis or
meiosis
reproduction is always asexual reproduction is asexual or
sexual
 The importance of microbiology
Microbes impinge/effect on all aspects of life, just a few of
these are listed below:

The environment Medicine Food

Biotechnology Research
 The importance of bacteria: (good)

• Recycle nutrients
through decomposition
• Nitrogen fixation:
convert nitrogen into a
form plants can use
• Foods: cheese, yogurt
• Medicines: produce
antibiotics to kill bacteria
by blocking growth
/reproduction; insulin
 The importance of bacteria: (bad)

Cause disease (pathogens)

Ex: strep throat, tetanus, Lyme
disease, tooth decay,
salmonella, tuberculosis
Fewer deaths from bacterial
infections because of
sanitation and hygiene
(sterilization/pasteurization by
heat, disinfectants)
 Microbes in our lives

• Microorganisms as Disease Agents – medical

microbiology
• Microorganisms and Agriculture -
• Microorganisms and the Food Industry -
• Microorganisms, Energy, and the Environment -
• Microorganisms and the Future
 Microbial physiology
Microbial genetics Microbial Morphology

Virology Parasitology

Mycology Branches of
Microbiology Protozoology

Bacteriology Microbial ecology

Microbial taxonomy Molecular biology

Phycology or Algology
 Scope of Microbiology

Microbiology
 Study of microorganisms are important for photosynthesis and decomposition, human
use and infectious diseases.

 Bacteriology study of bacteria

 Mycology study of fungi and yeast

 Virology study of viruses

 Parasitology study of parasitic protozoans and helminths

 Immunology study of the humoral and cellular immune response

 to disease agents and allergens
 Medical importance
Bacteria cause diseases
 Gastroenteritis
 Syphilis
 Tetanus
 Lyme disease
 Plague
Fungi cause diseases
 Valley fever
 Candidiasis
 Athlete's foot
 Medical importance
Virus cause diseases
AIDS
Influenza
Rabies
Common cold
Dengue
Viral Hepatitis
 Pharmaceutical importance

Bacteria in production of
 Antibiotics - Polymyxin
 Hormones - Insulin
•Fungi in production of
 Antibiotics - Penicillin
 Environmental importance
Bacteria in
 Biodegradation of
• Oil spills
• Wastewater treatment
Fungi in
 Wastewater treatment
 Degradation of complex organic matter
• Lignin in wood
 Industrial importance

•Bacteria
 Food supplements - Amino acids & Vitamins
 Organic solvents - Acetone

•Fungi
 Fermentation
• Wine
• Beer
• Bread
 Biotechnology and Recombinant DNA

• Biotechnology:
 The use of microorganisms, cells, or cell
components to make a product
 Foods, antibiotics, vitamins, enzymes
• Recombinant DNA Technology:
 Insertion or modification of genes to produce
desired proteins
• Genetic engineering by virus
 “Gene shuttles”
 Treatment of some genetic disorders
 ***Fields in Microbiology

 Epidemiology and Public Health Microbiology

distribution and spread of diseases and their control and
prevention

 Food Microbiology
use of microbes in the production of food products and drinks

 Agricultural and Veterinary Microbiology

use of microbes to increase crop and livestock yield and control of
plant pests and animal diseases

 Environmental Microbiology
study of the beneficial and harmful effects of microbes on the
environment
 Photosynthetic Microbes

Microbes are involved in photosynthesis and accounts for

>50% of earth’s oxygen.
Also involved in decomposition and nutrient recycling.
Beneficial Uses of Microbes

Extraction of copper from ore

Beneficial Uses of Microbes in Industry

Synthesis of drugs, hormones and enzymes

 Beneficial Uses of Microbes

Bioremediation is the use of microbes to degrade organic

matter in sewage and detoxify pollutants such as oil spills.
 Emerging Infectious Diseases
 Occurrence of new diseases and increasing incidence of
old ones (EID)
 Factors:
(a) evolutionary changes in existing organisms
(b) spread of known diseases into new
geographic areas by modern transportation
(c ) ecological changes resulting in introduction
of unusual agents
(d) emergence of antimicrobial resistance
 Emerging Infectious Diseases

• West Nile encephalitis

 West Nile Virus
 First diagnosed in the West Nile region of Uganda in
1937.
 Appeared in New York City in 1999.
• Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy
 Prion (infectious proteinaceous material)
 Also causes Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (CJD)
 New-variant CJD in humans related to cattle fed sheep
offal for protein.
 Emerging Infectious Diseases

• Escherichia coli O57:H7

 Toxin-producing strain of E. coli
 Fist seen in 1982
 Leading cause of diarrhea worldwide.
• Invasive group A Streptococcus
 Rapidly growing bacteria cause extensive
tissue damage.
 Increased incidence since 1995
 Emerging Infectious Diseases
 West Nile Encephalitis, first diagnosed in Uganda in 1937;
appeared in New York City in 1999.
 Invasive Group A Streptococcus, also known as the “flesh eating
bacteria”
 Escherichia coli 0157:H7, causes “bloody diarrhea” and
hemorrhagic uremic syndrome (HUS)
 Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy (BSE) or “mad cow” disease
caused by prions
 Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS) caused by HIV and
Africa is hardest hit
 Anthrax caused by Bacillus anthracis was sensationalized in 2001
when spores were disseminated via the mail
 Emerging Infectious Diseases
• Ebola hemorrhagic fever - Ebola virus
 Causes fever, hemorrhaging, and blood clotting
 First identified near Ebola River, Congo
 Outbreak every few years
• Anthrax - Bacillus anthracis
 In 1877, Koch proved B. anthracis causes anthrax.
 Veterinarians and agricultural workers are at risk of
cutaneous anthrax.
 In 2001, dissemination of B. anthracis via mail infected 22
people.
 Emerging Infectious Diseases
• Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS)
 Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)
 First identified in 1981.
 Worldwide epidemic infecting 40 million people;
14,000 new infections everyday.
 Sexually transmitted disease affecting males and
females.
 In the U.S., HIV/AIDS in people 13-24 years of age:
44% are female and 63% are African American.
 Modern Application of Microbiology

 Biotechnology, the use of microbes as miniature

biochemical factories to produce food and chemicals is
centuries old.
 Genetic engineering makes use of molecular biology
and recombinant DNA techniques as new tools for
biotechnology.
 Gene therapy replaces missing or defective genes in
human cells through genetic engineering.
 Genetically modified bacteria are used to protect crops
from pests and freezing.
 Cell Types

Comparative cellular structures of microbes

 The Microbes
viruses protozoa

bacteria

bacteriophage

algae
cyanobacteria
spirochaetes

fungi
 Size of Microbes

Microbes vary in size ranging

from 10 nm (nanometers) to
100 mu (micrometers) to the
macroscopic.

Viruses in nm = 10-9 m (meter)

Bacteria in um = 10-6 m

Helminths in mm = 10-3 m
 Bacteria

Prokaryotes

Peptidoglycan cell walls QuickTime™ and a

TIFF (Uncompressed) decompressor
are needed to see this picture.
Binary fission

Ex: Escherichia coli

 Archaea

Prokaryotes
Lack peptidoglycan
Live in extreme environments
(extremophiles)
Include:
 Methanogens
 Extreme halophiles
 Extreme thermophiles
 Fungi

Eukaryotes

Chitin cell walls

QuickTime™ and a
TIFF (Uncompressed) decompressor
Molds and mushrooms are needed to see this picture.

are multicellular

Yeasts are unicellular

 Protozoa

Eukaryotes

Mostly saprobes and

commensals QuickTime™ and a
TIFF (Uncompressed) decompressor
are needed to see this picture.
May be motile by means
of pseudopod, cilia or
flagella
 Algae

Eukaryotes
Cellulose cell walls
Photosynthetic QuickTime™ and a
TIFF (Uncompressed) decompressor
are needed to see this picture.
Produce molecular oxygen
and organic compounds
Part of food chain
 Helminths

Eukaryotes
Multicellular animals
Parasitic flatworms and QuickTime™ and a
TIFF (Uncompressed) decompressor
roundworms called are needed to see this picture.

helminths
Microscopic stages in life
cycles
 Viruses

Acellular
Obligate intracellular parasites
Genome consist of DNA or
QuickTime™ and a
RNA called Core TIFF (Uncompressed) decompressor
are needed to see this picture.
Core surrounded by protein
coat called Capsid
Virion may be enclosed in lipid
envelope
 Prions

Proteinaceous infectious
agents
Causes Bovine Spongiform
Encephalopathy (BSE) QuickTime™ and a
TIFF (Uncompressed) decompressor
are needed to see this picture.

Also causes Creutzfeldt-

Jacob Disease (CJD)
An Emerging Infectious
Disease (EID)
 Microbiology As A Science

 Science a systematized body of knowledge

explaining the occurrence of natural phenomena
 Qualities of a scientist:
curiosity
open-mindedness
skepticism
creativity
objectivity
 Scientific Approach
 Deductive reasoning
starts with a general idea that are tested to
prove or disprove it.

 Inductive reasoning
starts with drawing patterns from specific
observations resulting in generalization.
 Scientific Method

 Hypothesis
 Laboratory experimentation or field Studies
 Data collection and analysis
 Conclusion, either reject or accept hypothesis
 Theory or Law
Microbiological Experiment
 Brief History of Microbiology

 The Microscope
 Spores and Sterilization
 Spontaneous Generation
 Aseptic Technique
 Germ Theory
 Vaccination
 Antibiotics
The First Microscope

Microbes were first observed

by Antonie van Leeuwenhoek
using a simple microscope
(ca. 1673)
Reported his “animalcules” to
the Royal Society of London
 Spores and Sterilization

 John Tyndall showed that some microbes in

dust and air were resistant to heat.
 Ferdinand Cohn discovered and described
endospores
 Term “sterile” was introduced to mean the
complete removal of all life forms including
endospores
 Abiogenesis vs. Biogenesis

 “Spontaneous Generation” was an early belief

that living things can arise from vital forces
present in nonliving and decaying matter.
(Ex: maggots from meat or mushrooms
from rotting wood

 The alternative hypothesis that living organisms

can arise only from preexisting life forms is called
“Biogenesis”
The Pros and Cons

Francisco Redi (ca. 1668)

 The Pros and Cons
 1745 -John Needham boiled nutrient broth into
covered flasks

Conditions Results
Nutrient broth heated All showed growth
then placed in sealed
flasks

From where did the microbes come?

Spontaneous generation or biogenesis?
The Pros and Cons

Louis Jablot
 The Pros and Cons

Franz Schultze and Theodor Schwann

The Pros and Cons

Louis Pasteur put an

end to Abiogenesis
debate with his

Goose Neck Flask

Experiment

He is the father of
Microbiology
 Louis Pasteur

 Showed microbes caused

fermentation
 Studied spoilage and
introduced “Pasteurization”
to prevent it
 Used cotton plugs in his
cultures to prevent air borne
contamination, devised
Aseptic Technique.
 Antiseptics and Hand Washing

 1860s - Joseph Lister used, carbolic acid, a

chemical antiseptic to prevent surgical wound
infections
 Ignaz Semmelweis, a Hungarian physician
introduced hand washing as a means of
preventing transfer of puerpueral sepsis in
obstetrical patients
 Germ Theory of Disease
 1876 - Robert Koch
provided proof that a
bacterium causes anthrax
using experimental steps
now called the Koch’s
Postulates

 He was the first to use agar

as solid culture medium in
bacteriology.
 Koch’s Postulates

 The microbe must always be present in every

case of the disease
 It must be isolated in pure culture on artificial
media
 When inoculated into healthy animal host it
should produce the same disease
 It must be isolated from the diseased animal
again
 Infection and Disease
 Infection the entry of a microbe into the host.

 Disease infection followed by the appearance of

signs and symptoms.

 Pathogen an infectious or disease agent.

 Saprobe a microbe that lives on dead or

decaying organic matter.

 Opportunistic pathogen
is a microbe that cause disease in immunocompromised
hosts or when the normal microbiota is altered.