SCIENTIFIC REASONING

KCCS121-SCR(A)

COURSE INTRODUCTION
THE SYLLABUS

 Course Description
 Learning Outcomes
 Grading and Evaluation Parameters
 Deadline Extension
Major Grading and Late
Criterion Assignment Policy
details
 Academic Integrity and Late Assignment Policy
Deadline Extension
 Weekly Schedule
Academic Integrity
 Weekly Schedule
THE SYLLABUS

Assignment Number Assignment Name Grade

Grading and Evaluation Parameters
A01 Participation (Individual activity) 10%
A02 Spot quizzes(best 4 out of 5, each carries 5 marks) 20%
(Individual activity)
A03 Group assignment (Group activity) 20%
A04 Written Assignment (Individual activity) 25%
[Total time for assignment is 2 hours; May be split over multiple
classes; Grade split relative to time for each component or as
decided by instructor.
Split can also be across in-class and take-home assignment]

A05 Final exam (Individual activity) 20%

A06 Peer evaluation (Individual activity) 5% (This is actually part
of group assignment)
THE SYLLABUS

Learning outcomes
1. Ability to construct arguments

2. Ability to formulate theory from observations

3. Ability to design experiments in a multitude of disciplines, including the

natural sciences, and apply them in real (individual and social) life.

4. Developing a critical/analytical rigor of reasoning

THE SYLLABUS

Course Description
How do scientists think? Is there a special kind of reasoning that allows for
advancement in science? Is scientific reasoning only for scientists? This
course is about the special joy to be derived from a systematic way of
approaching natural and collective phenomena to understand them.
 Module 1 : What is Science ?

What do we think of when we think

“Science” ?


Labcoats


Beakers


Microscopes


Big Equations


Disarrayed Labs ....

What makes something a science ?

https://andertoons.com/
 Module 1 : What is Science ?

Marie Curie
Richard Feynman
Jagadish Chandra Bose
Module 1 : What is Science ?


Common Perception: Physics , Chemistry, Biology are Sciences; Arts, Music, Theology
are not.

What we are seeking are a set of criteria shared by disciplines identified as sciences.


Q: But isn’t science a way to understand and explain the world we live in?

A: Yes..it is true.


Q: But then why are historians not scientists? They try to understand and explain what
happened in the past, but history is considered a humanities subject not a science
subject.

A: No, they are not because what we said about science is not the complete story..
 Module 1 : What is Science ?


A distinguishing feature: Use of a
particular method of enquiry-”The
Scientific Method”, eg. Experiments,
observation and data assimilation and
interpretation.


But Science is not just experimentation
or data collection. It all has to fit a
theoretical model that explains the
physical reality- not always easy, but
there have been striking successes in
the past. Can you think of some
examples?
Module 1 : What is Science ?


A Little bit of History.....

Origins of modern science attributed to
developments between 1500-
1750-”scientific revolution”.

A major milestone was the Copernican
revolution
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In 1572, Tycho Brahe noticed a completely new star that

was brighter than any star or planet. Astonished by the
existence of a star that ought not to have been there, he
devoted himself to creating ever more accurate
instruments of measurement over the next fifteen years
(1576–1591).

Polish astronomer Nicolas Copernicas (1473-1543), in his

work “On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres,”
published in 1543, attacked the geocentric model of the
universe.

He suggested intead of earth, the sun was the fixed center

of the universe and planets, including earth, were in orbit
around it.
Module 1 : What is Science ?

Kepler’s second law of planetary motion. source: Wikipedia

Kepler (1620) source: Wikipedia

Copernican revolution paved the way fo

modern physics through the works of
Johannes Kepler (1571-1630) and Galileo
Galilei (1564-1642)

Kepler (an assistant of Tyco Brahe) gave his

three laws of planetary motion describing
how the planets moved around the sun in
elliptical (rather than circular) orbits.
Module 1 : What is Science ?

Galileo...

A lifelong supporter of Copernicanism and one of the

early pioneers of the telescope.

Using his telescope made a weath of amazing

discoveries-mountains on the moon, sun spots, Jupiter’s
moons etc.-all of which boosted the faith in Copernican
view.

His work on the motions of bodies, along with the largely

independent work of Kepler and René Descartes, was a Galileo Galilei by Justus Sustermans,
1636 (Wikipedia)
precursor of the classical mechanics developed by Sir
Isaac Newton.
"Philosophy is written in this grand
book, the universe ... It is written in the
Refuted the Aristotelian theory that heavier bodies fall language of mathematics, and its
faster than lighter ones. Made the counter-intuitive characters are triangles, circles, and
suggestion that all freely falling bodies will fall towards other geometric figures;....", The
the earth at the same rate, irrespective of their weight. Assayer (Galileo Galilei)

Was one of the first modern thinkers to clearly state that

the laws of nature are mathematical

.
 Module 1 : What is Science ?


After Galileo.... Descartes and
Newton

French philosopher-scientist Reńe Descartes
(1596-1650) developed a new ‘mechanical
philosophy’- physical world explained in terms
of collisions and interactions of inert
‘corspuscles’ of matter.

Reńe Descartes (Stanford 
Isaac Newton. Source:
Encyclopedia of Philosophy) Wikipedia


Mechanical philosophy was the dominant
scientific vision of the 17th century.


Scientific revolution culminated in the work of Title page of Principia,1687.
Isaac Newton (1643-1727), Philosophiæ Source: Wikipedia

Naturalis Principia Mathematica (Mathematical

Principles of Natural Philosophy), published in
1687
 Module 1 : Science is not only Eurocentric
Aryabhata (476-550 AD)
Contribution in mathematics:

• Value system and zero: The place-value system, first seen in the 3rd-century Bakhshali Manuscript, was clearly in
place in his work.

• Concept and accurate approximation of π (accurate up to two parts in one million)

• Ganitapada: Calculated the area of a triangle and calculated sine and cosine values.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%80ryabha%E1%B9%ADa%27s_sine_table

• These knowledges was later transferred to the Middle East. Many Arabic scholars referred Aryabhata’s concept of
zero, and his work in geometry/trigonometric in their work. (ardha-jya-jya-jb-jaib-sinus-sine)

• Indeterminate equation (Diophantine equations):

N = 8x+5 = 9y+4 = 7z+1 (Find N; smallest value is 85)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%80ryabha%E1%B9%ADa_numeration
They were also discussed extensively in ancient Vedic text Sulba Sutras, whose more ancient parts might date to
800 BCE.

• In the book “Aryabhatiya”, Aryabhata provided elegant results for summation of series of squares and cubes
 Aryabhata’s contribution in astronomy
• Solar and lunar eclipses:
He discusses at length the size and extent of the Earth's shadow (verses gola.38–48) and then provides the computation and the size of the
eclipsed part during an eclipse. Later Indian astronomers improved on the calculations, but Aryabhata's methods provided the core. His
computational paradigm was so accurate that 18th-century scientist Guillaume Le Gentil, during a visit to Pondicherry, India, found the Indian
computations of the duration of the lunar eclipse of 30 August 1765 to be short by 41 seconds, whereas his charts (by Tobias Mayer, 1752)
were long by 68 seconds.

• Sidereal periods
• Considered in modern English units of time, Aryabhata calculated the sidereal rotation (the rotation of the earth referencing the fixed stars)
as 23 hours, 56 minutes, and 4.1 seconds; [35] the modern value is 23:56:4.091. Similarly, his value for the length of the sidereal year at 365
days, 6 hours, 12 minutes, and 30 seconds (365.25858 days) [36] is an error of 3 minutes and 20 seconds over the length of a year
(365.25636 days).

Legacy: Aryabhata's work was of great influence in the Indian astronomical tradition and influenced several neighbouring cultures
through translations. The Arabic translation during the Islamic Golden Age (c. 820 CE), was particularly influential. Some of his results
are cited by Al-Khwarizmi and in the 10th century Al-Biruni stated that Aryabhata's followers believed that the Earth rotated on its axis.

Aryabhata's astronomical calculation methods were also very influential. Along with the trigonometric tables, they came to be widely
used in the Islamic world and used to compute many Arabic astronomical tables (zijes). In particular, the astronomical tables in the work
of the Arabic Spain scientist Al-Zarqali (11th century) were translated into Latin as the Tables of Toledo (12th century) and remained the
most accurate ephemeris used in Europe for centuries.
 Many others also contributed……

(Ancient to middle-age Indian scientists and mathematicians)

Varahamihira(505-587 AD), Brahmagupta (598-668 AD), Bhaskara I(600-680 AD),
Bhaskara II(1114-1185): Introduction to calculus, arithmetic, algebra, Madhava of.
Sangamagrama (1340-1425): infinite series, power series, trigonometry (Ancient to middle-age
Indian scientists and mathematicians)

Middle age scientists, mathematicians

Ibn Sina (980 – 1037), Ibn Al-Haytham (965 – 1040), Al-Khwarizmi (780-850):
Known as father of Algebra, al-Zahrawi (936-1013 AD): Surgery and surgical
instruments
…….(Islamic golden age)
Module 1 : What is Science ?


The Newtonian Era......

The Three Laws of Motion

Universal Gravitation

Invention of calculus

Kepler’s laws and Galileo’s law of free fall-
consequences of his laws of motion and
Gravitation.

Single set of laws for terrestrial and
celestial bodies

Next two centuries were the era of
Newtonian physics.

Source: Wikipedia
Module 1 : What is Science ?


20th century-Breakdown of Newtonian paradigm:

Source:http://large.stanford.edu/cartoons/universe/ Source:http://large.stanford.edu/cartoons/universe/
Module 1 : What is Science ?


Early 20th century saw emergence of revolutionary ideas in physics:


Einstein’s Special and General Theory of Relativity showed Newtonian
approach does not work for very high speeds or very massive bodies.


Quantum Mechanics was shown to rule the domain of the microscopic world of
atoms, molecules where again Newtonian ideas cannot apply.


These developments brought forth a new age in thinking about how the world
operates at its extremes-at the very big, i.e. at cosmic scales and at the very
small, that of the subatomic scale
 Francis Bacon (1561-1626)

• Baconinan method …..empiricism

He argued for the possibility of scientific knowledge based only upon inductive
reasoning and careful observation of events in nature. His portion of the method
based in scepticism was a new rhetorical and theoretical framework for science,
whose practical details are still central to debates on science and methodology.

Libraries and cataloguing

LobrarBacon was a patron of libraries and developed a system for cataloguing books
under three categories – history, poetry, and philosophy – which could further be
divided into specific subjects and subheadings. About books he wrote: "Some books
are to be tasted; others swallowed; and some few to be chewed and digested.
WHAT IS SCIENCE?
SOME DEFINITIONS

Hypothesis

A tentative assumption made in order to draw out and test

its logical or empirical consequences
The succeeding or posterior clause of a conditional
statement
Example: "Motorists who talk on the phone while driving will be more
likely to make errors on a driving course than those who do not talk on the
phone.
There is no difference in anxiety levels between people who take St. John's
wort supplements and those who do not. (null hypothesis)
People who take St. John's wort supplements will have less anxiety than
those who do not. (alternative hypothesis)
 Module 1 : What is Science ?

 Null Hypothsis ( H0 )


Assumes there is no relationship
between the measured
phenomenon (the dependent
variable) and the independent
variable.


One likely suspects a relationship
between a set of variables.


One way to prove this is to reject Source:https://www.thoughtco.com/null-hypothesis-examples-609097

the null hypothesis.

Module 1 : What is Science ?

 Alternate Hypothesis (H1)


Is complementary to the null hypothesis


Suggests that the experimental or independent variable has an effect on the
dependent variable.

EXAMPLES:

H0 : There is no difference in the salary of factory workers based on gender.

H1 : Male factory workers have a higher salary than female factory workers.

H0 : Experience on the job has no impact on the quality of a brick mason’s work.
H1 : The quality of a brick mason’s work is influenced by on-the-job experience.
WHAT IS SCIENCE?
THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD
Falsification: The Null vs. Alternative Hypothesis
The case of the optical illusion
WHAT IS SCIENCE?
WHY DO WE NEED THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD?
The case of the optical illusion
WHAT IS SCIENCE?
SOME DEFINITIONS

Theory

A plausible or scientifically acceptable general

principle or body of principles offered to explain
phenomena.

a hypothesis assumed for the sake of argument or

Investigation, the general or abstract principles of a
body of fact, a science, or an art

Example: Darwin’s theory of evolution

Einstein’s special theory of relativity
WHAT IS SCIENCE?
SOME DEFINITIONS

Model

a system of postulates, data, and inferences

presented
as a mathematical description of an entity or state
of
affairs.

a description or analogy used to help visualize

something (such as an atom) that cannot be
directly
Observed

Example: Rutherford’s atomic model

Bohr’s atomic model (improves the limitations of
Rutherford’s model)
WHAT IS SCIENCE?
SOME DEFINITIONS

Statement

a single declaration or remark

an instruction in a computer program

Example: The trains are always late.

Tailgating is a top cause of car accidents.

Non-statements: When the car ahead reaches an object, make

sure you can count to five elephants before you reach the same
object.
WHAT IS SCIENCE?
SOME DEFINITIONS

Claim

an assertion open to challenge

to assert in the face of possible contradiction. A claim

answers a debatable question posed by a writer, which then is
proved in a paragraph or essay.

For example, "Dogs make better pets than cats" is a claim that
can be argued.
WHAT IS SCIENCE?
SOME DEFINITIONS

Inference

the act of passing from one proposition, statement,

or judgment considered as true to another whose
truth is believed to follow from that of the former.

the act of passing from statistical sample data to

generalizations (as of the value of population
parameters) usually with calculated degrees of
certainty

Example: The baby made a disgusted face after trying a new

food, so you can infer that the baby does not like the new food.
WHAT IS SCIENCE?
SOME DEFINITIONS

Premise

something assumed or taken for granted

a proposition antecedently supposed or proved as a

basis of argument or inference

Specifically, either of the first two propositions of a

syllogism from which the conclusion is drawn

Example: John does not like any sour things" and "All lemons
are sour" are two premises that imply the conclusion "John does
not like lemons"
WHAT IS SCIENCE?
SOME DEFINITIONS

Deduction

inference in which the conclusion about particulars

follows necessarily from general or universal
premises.

Example: Customers are happy if they get prompt service at

the store. We provide prompt service at our store. Therefore,
customers are happy with the service at our store".
WHAT IS SCIENCE?
SOME DEFINITIONS

Induction

inference of a generalized conclusion from

particular instances.
an initial experience
Examples:

•Predicting future events

Inductive prediction involves using past observations or patterns to predict future events. For
example, if you observe that every time you drop an object, it falls to the ground, you can
predict that it will also fall to the ground the next time you drop an object.
•Science
In science, induction involves formulating hypotheses and searching for evidence of their
truth. For example, you might check the color of as many swans as you can find, then
extrapolate a rule to say “all swans are white”.
WHAT IS SCIENCE?
WHAT CONSTITUTES SCIENCE ANYWAY?
The principle of falsification: Demarcating science from pseudoscience

Karl Popper (1902-1994)

"Statements, or systems of
statements, in order to be
ranked as scientific, must be
capable of conflicting with
possible, or conceivable
observations."

Images: https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2012/sep/10/karl-popper-enemy-uncertainty; https://uxdesign.cc/user-research-is-not-pseudoscience-3a797f71fe13

WHAT IS SCIENCE?

•Origin
•The term "black swan" originated in the Roman poet Juvenal's poem Satire VI, where he wrote
"rara avis in terris, nigroque simillima cygno", which translates to "a rare bird in the world, very
similar to the black swan". At the time, it was believed that all swans were white, so the term was
used to describe something impossible.
•Discovery of black swans
•In 1697, Dutch explorer Willem de Vlamingh became the first European to see black swans in
Australia. This discovery challenged the idea that all swans were white and led to the term "black
swan" becoming a metaphor for the idea that something that seems impossible could actually
happen.
•Black swan theory
•The term "black swan" was popularized by former Wall Street trader Nassim Nicholas Taleb in his
2001 book Fooled by Randomness. Taleb used the term to describe unexpected events, and in his
2007 book The Black Swan, he extended the metaphor to events outside of finance. Taleb's work
WHAT IS SCIENCE?
SOME DEFINITIONS

Argument

a coherent series of reasons, statements, or facts

intended to support or establish a point of view.

a reason given for or against a matter under

discussion.

a form of rhetorical expression intended to convince

or persuade.

Example: Our country should return to the gold standard.

You would then support this claim with several arguments, such
as these:
The gold standard is superior to the current system in the United
States.
The gold standard is feasible.
The gold standard would be strong in the future.
WHAT IS SCIENCE?
SOME DEFINITIONS

Fact

a piece of information presented as having

objective reality.

the quality of being actual.

Example: The sun rises in the east.

WHAT IS SCIENCE?
SOME DEFINITIONS

Evidence

something that furnishes proof an outward sign

something legally submitted to a tribunal to

ascertain the truth of a matter

Example: Chocolate stains around your mouth and crumbs on

the table are evidence that you ate the last of the brownies.
WHAT IS SCIENCE?
SOME DEFINITIONS

Rationale

an underlying reason

an explanation of controlling principles of opinion,

belief, practice, or phenomena

Generally, we provide rationale

prior to an action or decision; why you plan to do something and
how, or
after you have acted or decided something; reflecting, looking
back, why you did something and how it worked or not.

Indian cricket team chose three spinners in the current test as

they hope that the black-soiled pitch will assist spin in the later
stages of the game as it did many times earlier.
WHAT IS SCIENCE?
SOME DEFINITIONS

Logic

a proper or reasonable way of thinking about or

understanding something.

the science that studies the formal processes used

in thinking and reasoning.

Example:
Socrates is a man.
All men are mortal.
Socrates is mortal.
WHAT IS SCIENCE?
SOME DEFINITIONS

Reason

a statement offered in explanation or justification

a rational ground or motive

a sufficient ground of explanation or of logical

defense

I can’t show you my painting right now as it is not completed

yet.
WHAT IS SCIENCE?
SOME DEFINITIONS

Fallacy

a false or mistaken idea

an often plausible argument using false or invalid

inference

Example: Annoying co-workers are a headache. Painkillers can

help you get rid of a headache.
Painkillers can help you get rid of annoying co-workers.

This house is made of bricks. A brick is light in weight.

Therefore, this house is also light in weight.
WHAT IS SCIENCE?
SOME DEFINITIONS

Thesis

a statement that someone wants to discuss or

prove a position or proposition that a person (such
as a candidate for scholastic honors) advances and
offers to maintain by argument

a proposition to be proved or one advanced without

proof

Example:
School uniforms may be an upfront cost for families, but they
eradicate the visual differences in income between students
WHAT IS SCIENCE?
SOME DEFINITIONS

Principle

the laws or facts of nature underlying the working

of an artificial device

a comprehensive and fundamental law, doctrine, or

assumption

Example:
The principle of superposition states that the displacement of
any point due to the superposition of wave systems is equal to
the sum of the displacements of the individual waves at that
point.
WHAT IS SCIENCE?
SOME DEFINITIONS

Law

a statement of an order or relation of phenomena

that so far as is known is invariable under the given
conditions.

E = mc2 (Law of energy and mass equivalence)

WHAT IS SCIENCE?
SOME DEFINITIONS

Dogma

something held as an established opinion a point of

view or tenet put forth as authoritative without
adequate grounds

Example: People from north India are rude.

WHAT IS SCIENCE?
SOME DEFINITIONS

Analogy

a comparison of two otherwise unlike things based

on resemblance of a particular aspect

inference that if two or more things agree with one

another in some respects they will probably agree
in others

Example: Just as a sword is the weapon of a warrior, a pen is

the weapon of a writer.
WHAT IS SCIENCE?
SOME DEFINITIONS

Empirical

originating in or based on observation or

experience relying on or observation alone often
without due regard for system and theory

capable of being verified or disproved by

observation
or experiment

Empirical evidence is information gathered from observations

and experiments that can be measured or categorized.

Example: In the modern era, having coding skills help getting

high-paying jobs.
WHAT IS SCIENCE?
SOME DEFINITIONS

Experiential

relating to, derived from, or providing experience

Example:

Suppose you start an ice cream stall in the summer and decide
to try out different ice cream flavors to see which one performs
best. In this case, the ice cream flavor is the independent
variable, and the ice cream sale revenue affected by the change
of flavor is the dependent variable.

Based on your experience, you conclude that

“In summer, ice creams with strawberry flavor give good profit.
WHAT IS SCIENCE?
SOME DEFINITIONS

Observation

an act of recognizing and noting a fact or

occurrence often involving measurement with
instruments

All apples drop vertically downwards on the earth’s

surface.
Module 1 : What is Science ?

Q: What is Scientific Method ?

A: It is a system of exploring the world

around us by asking and answering
questions, and making predictions.


PROCESS:

Make an OBSERVATION.


Define the PROBLEM-ask testable
questions.
Source:https://www.thoughtco.com/

Formulate the HYPOTHESIS.


Conduct the EXPERIMENT (to test the
Hypothesis).


Derive a THEORY-conclusions based
on the outcome of the experiment
 Module 1 : What is Science ?


HYPOTHESIS

A Hypothesis is a statement
regarding the objective facts one
observes.

The hypothesis need not be

mathematically precise or specific.
It is enough that it describes what
could have generated the
observed data.

In short, hypothesis should be

consistent with what we observe.

Source:https://xkcd.com/2569/

Consider the statement:“The universe started from a big bang.”

Is this a fact or a hypothesis ?

What about “All species originate from a common ancestor”?

 Module 1 : What is Science ?


Karl Popper :

Falsification

Source:https://aquileana.wordpress.com/2009/08/11/karl-popper-falsacionismo-principio-de-
falsabilidad/
 Module 1 : What is Science ?


Karl Popper on scientific theory....

Karl Popper (1902-1994) opined that fundamental feature
of scientific theory is that it should be falsifiable.


“Falsifiable” does not mean false . It means theory
should make definite predictions that can be tested
against experiments.


If predictions are wrong then the theory is falsified or
disproved.
WHAT IS SCIENCE?
THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD

https://science.howstuffworks.com/innovation/scientific-experiments/scientific-method6.htm
 Popper and Falisificationism

“Scientific theories are falsifiable.”


“Theories are construed as speculative and tentative conjectures or guesses
freely created by the human intellect in an attempt to overcome problems
encountered by previous theories to give an adequate account of some
aspects of the world or universe. Once proposed, speculative theories are to
be rigorously and ruthlessly tested by observation and experiment. Theories
that fail to stand up to observational and experimental tests must be eliminated
and replaced by further speculative conjectures. Science progresses by trial
and error, by conjectures and refutations. Only the fittest theories survive.”

KCCS121 26 Oct. 2023

 Popper and Falisificationism

“The demand that theories should be highly falsifiable has the attractive
consequence that theories should be clearly stated and precise.”


“Because science aims at theories with a large informative content, the
falsificationist welcomes the proposal of bold speculative conjectures. Rash
speculations are to be encouraged, provided they are falsifiable and provided
they are rejected when falsified. This do-or-die attitude clashes with the
caution advocated by the extreme inductivist.”

KCCS121 26 Oct. 2023

 Sophisticated falsificationism,
and the growth of science

“a newly proposed theory will be acceptable as worthy of the consideration of
scientists if it is more falsifiable than its rival, and especially if it predicts a new
kind of phenomenon not touched on by its rival.”


“The demand that as a science progresses its theories should become
more and more falsifiable, and consequently have more and more content
and be more and more informative, rules out modifications in theories that are
designed merely to protect a theory from a threatening falsification.”

KCCS121 26 Oct. 2023

 Sophisticated falsificationism,
and the growth of science

“Significant advances will be marked by the confirmation of bold
conjectures or the falsification of cautious conjectures…Cases of the
former kind …mark the discovery of something that was previously unheard of
or considered unlikely... The falsification of cautious conjectures is informative
because it establishes that what was regarded as unproblematically true is in
fact false.”


“By contrast, little is learnt from falsification of a bold conjecture or the
confirmation of a cautious conjecture.”

KCCS121 26 Oct. 2023

 Module 1 : What is Science ?

Is Falsifiability the last word?

Discovery of Neptune...

Newton’s theory was mostly succesful in predicting
planetary orbits around the sun-but orbit of Uranus did
not fit well !


As per Popper-Newton is WRONG!


However in 1846, Adams (England) and Leverrier
(France) suggested another yet undiscovered planet’s
gravity could be culprit. New Berlin Observatory at Linden Street, where Neptune was
discovered.
Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discovery_of_Neptune

Shortly afterwards Neptune was discovered in September
1846-almost exactly where Adams and Leverrier
predicted!


Rather than concluding Newton to be wrong-they stuck
with the theory and attempted an alternative explanation
which led to a discovery.


Was their approach not scientific ?
Module 1 : What is Science ?

Einstein’s General theory of Relativity had a
definite prediction-light rays from distant starts
are bent by Sun’s gravity (Gravitational lensing).

1919 Expeditions by Eddington tested and
confirmed the theoretical calculations by
Einstein !-rest is history...

General Relativity satisfies the criterion of
falsifiability.

Source:https://sciencephotogallery.com/featured/einstein-and-
eddington-royal-astronomical-societyscience-photo-library.html

Source: https://hubblesite.org/contents/articles/gravitational-
lensing
WHAT IS SCIENCE?

Popper’s opinion on Freud’s and Marx’s theory of communism.

Why did he consider them as “pseudoscience”?

But on the same logic why Einstein’s theory is not.

Popper developed a methodology, but the discovery of Neptune came in a very non-
Popper method; is it non-scientific?
 Limitations of falsificationism


“Falsificationists…insist that the observation statements that constitute the basis of science
are theory-dependent and fallible. … When observation and experiment provide evidence that
conflicts with the predictions of some law or theory, it may be the evidence that is at fault rather
than the law or theory.”


Duhem problem and the uncertainties of observation: “A theory cannot be conclusively
falsified, because the possibility cannot be ruled out that some part of the complex test situation,
other than the theory under test, is responsible for an erroneous prediction.” (Duhem/Quine thesis,
1960s)


“Falsificationism inadequate on historical grounds” (Example: Newton’s gravitational theory – orbit
of Uranus)
KCCS121 26 Oct. 2023
Ether or no ether

Experiment was correct but the theory was
wrong
 Caloric theory …. A wrong theory
Caloric is a kind of a fluid which after entering in a
substance breaks the molecule’s compactness….cold
is just the absence of caloric

Invented various elements like oxygen and

hydrogen and also listed caloric as one of them

Antoine
Heat is related to motion….. Caloric theory nullified
Lavoisier

Heat is related to motion……not a substance

Module 1 : What is Science ?

Takeaway...


In general scientists do not abandon their theories
whenever there is conflict with obsevational data.


Usually they look for alternatives to eliminate the
conflict without having to abandon the theory.


Vitually every scientific theory conflicts with some
data- “one size fits al” is an extremely difficult
victory.


If there is persistent and increasing discrepency with
data, a theory eventually gets rejected or modiifed in
light of new evidence.
WHAT IS SCIENCE?
THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD
Hypothesis-driven research versus data-driven research

Theory-driven [Deductive reasoning] Data-driven [Inductive reasoning]

General Empirical
theory observation

Testable
Detectable pattern
hypothesis

Empirical test Tentative hypothesis

Confirmation/
General theory
rejection

Canonical approach Non-canonical approach in the era of data

WHAT IS SCIENCE?
SCIENTIFIC HYPOTHESIS TESTING
WHAT IS SCIENCE?
WHAT DO WE MEAN BY “SCIENCE”?
Science changes in the face of
new data
Ironically, this could reduce the
public’s faith in science!
WHAT IS SCIENCE?
WHAT DO WE MEAN BY “SCIENCE”?
Science changes in the face of
new data
Ironically, this could reduce the
public’s faith in science!
WHAT IS SCIENCE?
WHAT DO WE MEAN BY “SCIENCE”?
Module 1 : What is Science ?

Thomas Kuhn on
Scientific Progress

Source: https://www.mprl-series.mpg.de/proceedings/8/3/index.html
 Module 1 : What is Science ?

Thomas Kuhn (1922 – 1996)


“Structure of scientific revolutions” (1962)


Development of science is not linear, or uniform


Research proceeds in alternating ”normal” and
“revolutionary” phases


Normal phase - commitment to successful
frameworks — paradigms


Revolutionary phase - progress happens through
paradigm shifts

Source: https://www.csustan.edu/sites/default/files/groups/University
%20Honors%20Program/Journals/bishel.pdf
 Module 1 : What is Science ?

Thomas Kuhn (1922 – 1996)


Paradigms give form to the scientific life,
constitute a scientific tradition.

Paradigm shift give birth to new theory,
phases of innovation, caused by a
paradigm’s failure of explanatory power.

Such points of failure are termed
“anomalies” or “crisis points” by Kuhn.

Anomalies are essential for new theory,
according to Kuhn.

For Popper, anomalies are cause for
rejection of a theory.

For Kuhn, they birth new theory, or
paradigm shifts.
Source: Introducing Philosophy of Science: A Graphic Guide by Ziauddin

Differences between successive paradigms Sardar (Author), Borin Van Loon (Illustrator)
are both necessary and irreconcilable.
 Module 1 : What is Science ?


Enough about Physics....

Historical focus on physics not an accident- pertained
to most fundamental questions that engaged human
curiosity

Other disciplines also witnessed landmark moments in
19th and 20th centuries.

Charles Darwin in Origin of species (1859) discussed the
theory of natural selection-widely accepted by the start
of 20th century.

Discovery of the structure of DNA in 1953 by Rosalind
Franklin, Maurice Wilkins, James D. Watson and Francis
Crick-heralded the field of microbiology.

2003 saw completion of the Human Genome Project- James Watson and Francis Crick with their DNA model at the
Cavendish Laboratories in 1953.
vast implications for medicine and biotechnology. Source:
https://sciencehistory.org/education/scientific-biographies/james-
watson-francis-crick-maurice-wilkins-and-rosalind-franklin/

Only 5-10% of the functionality of our brain is known so
far. Neuroscience is exploring the possibilities on this
aspect where terms like consciousness, dream,
cognitive abilities, and emotional quotient are
becoming more and more important
 Module 1 : What is Science ?


The past six-seven decades have witnessed
explosion of disciplines.

Scientific research and innovation has become
more collaborative and interdisciplinary

Advancements in computational science and
artificial intelligence have brought disciplines
closer.

This is the era of international collaborations, big
data challenges and innovation in all aspects of
design and function.

Source: https://www.learncomputerscienceonline.com/what-is-machine-
learning/
WHAT IS SCIENCE?

HOW IMPORTANT IS THE ISSUE OF PLAGIARISM

The Meissner Effect

So far everything we have discussed

is equally true for a “perfect conductor”
as well as a “superconductor”

In 1933 Meissner and Oschenfeld

made a discovery which distinguished
between the two

The Meissner Effect

“A superconductor
excludes all magnetic
flux from its interior”

Lecture 2 Superconductivity and Superfluidity

Timeline of superconductivity

Superconductivity and Superfluidity

Falls faster than it rises
Where we are heading towards: few demanding questions


AI

Existence of life other than earth

Quantum computation

Neural networks and brain functionality

Quest to room temperature superconductors
Module 1 : What is Science ?

Back to Square One..

But then what is the answer to our original question, What is Science?

“The philosopher Ludwig Wittgenstein argued that there is no fixed set of

features that define what it is to be a ‘game’. Rather there is a loose cluster of
features most of which are possessed by most games. But any particular
game may lack any of the features in the cluster and still be a game. The
same may be true of science.”

Taken from “Philosophy of Science: A Very Short Introduction”, by Samir

Okasha