Introduction to

Computer Systems
K.G. Mahute: Lecture 1: Hardware
 Why computer hardware?


Organizations invest in computer hardware to improve worker
productivity.

Increase revenue, reduce costs.

Provide better customer service, speed up time-to-market, and,

Enable collaboration among employees.
 Cont


Organisations that don’t invest in hardware are bound to use outdated
equipment that is:
 Unreliable
 Cannot take advantage of latest technology

Obsolete hardware can disadvantage an organisation.

It is the role of the manager to define the business needs that the hardware
must support.

Managers must be able to evaluate options when considering hardware
investments for their area of the business
 Computer Systems
System Unit
Output device

Output device

Output device

Input device

Input device
 The Computer System
• Computer system consists of
• central processing unit (CPU)
• primary storage
• secondary storage
• input devices
• output devices
• Communications devices.
Basic Structure with bus systems
 The System Unit
• What are common components inside the system
unit? power supply drive bays

 Processor processor

 Memory
 Adapter cards
 Sound card ports memory
 Video card
 Ports
 Drive bays
 Power supply

video card sound card

 The
• What is the System
motherboard? Unit
 Main circuit
board in system
unit
 Contains adapter
cards, processor
chips, and
memory chips
 Also called
system board
 Components1
• The CPU
• manipulates raw data into more useful form and
controls the other parts of the computer system.

• Primary storage
• temporarily stores data and program instructions
during processing.

• Secondary storage
• devices store data and programs when they are not
being used in processing.
 Components 2
• Input devices
• convert data and instructions into electronic form for
input into the computer.

• Output devices
• convert electronic data produced by the computer
system and display them in a form that people can
understand.

• Communication devices
• provide connections between the computer and
communications networks.
 Components 3
• Buses
• are circuitry paths for transmitting data and signals among the
parts of the computer system.
The CPU and Primary Storage
• The CPU is the part of the computer system where the
manipulation of symbols, numbers, and letters occurs, and
it controls the other parts of the computer system.

The CPU
 Processor
• What is the central processing unit (CPU)?

 Interprets Processor
and carries
Control
Control Arithmetic
Arithmetic
out basic instructions Unit
Unit Logic Unit
Logic Unit (ALU)
(ALU)
that operate a computer
Instructions
 Control unit directs and Data
coordinates operations in Informatio
n
computer
 Arithmetic logic unit Input Output
Devices
Data Memory Information
Devices
(ALU) performs
arithmetic, comparison,
Instructions
and logical operations Data
 Also Informatio
called the processor n

Storage
Devices
 Processor
• What is a machine cycle?
 Four operations of the CPU comprise a machine cycle

Step 1. Fetch
Obtain program instruction
or data item from memory

Memory

Step 2.
Step 4. Store Decode
Write result to memory Translate
instruction into
Processor
commands
ALU Control Unit
Step 3.
Execute
Carry out command
Fetch – Execute Cycle
Fetch- Execute Cycle
• Step 1: Fetch instruction. The computer reads the next program instruction to be executed
and any necessary data into the processor.
 Step 2: Decode instruction. The instruction is decoded and passed to the appropriate
processor execution unit. Each execution unit plays a different role: The arithmetic/logic
unit performs all arithmetic operations.

The time it takes to perform the instruction phase (Steps 1 and 2) is called the
instruction time (I-time).

Step 3: Execute instruction. The hardware element(ALU), now freshly fed with an
instruction and data, carries out the instruction. This could involve making an arithmetic
computation or logical comparison.

Step 4: Store results. The results are stored in registers or memory.

The time it takes to complete the execution phase (Steps 3 and 4) is called the execution
time (E-time).
 Cont


After both phases have been completed for one instruction, they
are performed again for the second instruction, and so on.
Completing the instruction phase followed by the execution
phase is called a machine cycle.
• Three kinds of busses linked between the CPU, primary
storage and the other devices in the computer system:
• Data bus
• Pass information in bi-directional.
• Address bus
• Transmits signals for locating a given address in primary storage, indicating
where data should be placed.
• Control bus
• Transmits signal specifying whether to read or write data to or from
primary storage address, input device or output device.
• The characteristics of the CPU and primary storage are
very important in determining a computer’s speed and
capabilities
 The Arithmetic-Logic Unit and
Control Unit
• An arithmetic logic unit (ALU) and control unit is one
of the core components of all central processing units.
• The ALU performs the computer’s principal logical and
arithmetic operations.
• It adds, subtracts, multiples, and divides, determining
whether a number is positive, negative, or zero.
• ALU must be able to determine when one quantity is
greater than or less than another and when two
quantities are equal.
• The control unit coordinates and controls the other parts
of the computer system.
• It reads a stored program, one instruction at a time and
directs other components of the computer system to
perform the program’s required tasks.
 Primary Storage
• Primary storage is a category of computer storage, often called
main memory.
• Has three functions:
• Stores all or part of the program that is being executed.
• Stores the operating system programs that manage the operation of the
computer.
• Holds data that the program is using.
• Data and program are placed in primary storage before processing,
between processing steps and after processing has ended prior to
being returned to secondary storage or released as output.
• Modern primary storage devices include:
• Random access memory (RAM)
• is used for short-term storage of data or program instructions. RAM is
volatile. Its contents will be lost when the computer’s electric supply is
disrupted by a power outage or when the computer turned off.
• Read-only memory (ROM)
• can only be read from. It cannot be written to. ROM chips come from
the manufacturer with programs already burned in, or stored. ROM is
used in general-purpose computers to store important or frequently
used programs.
 Memory
• What is random access memory (RAM)?

Memory chips that can be

read from and written
to by processor
Most RAM is
Also called
volatile, it is lost
main memory
when computer’s
or primary
power is
storage
turned off

The more RAM a

computer has, the
faster it responds
 Memory
• How do program instructions transfer in and
out of RAM? RAM Step 1. When you start the computer, certain
operating system files are loaded into RAM from
the hard disk. The operating system displays the
user interface on the screen.

Step 2. When you start a Web browser, the

program’s instructions are loaded into RAM from
the hard disk. The Web browser window is
displayed on the screen.

Step 3. When you start a word processing

program, the program’s instructions are loaded
instructions interface
into RAM from the hard disk. The word
processing program, along with the Web Browser
Operating system Operating system
and certain operating system instructions are in
RAM. The word processing program window is
displayed on the screen.
RAM
instructions window
Step 4. When you quit a program, such as
Web browser Web browser
the Web browser, its program instructions are
removed from RAM. The Web browser is no
longer displayed on the screen.
instructions
program window
Web browser program Web browser
program
Word processing
instructions are window is no
Word processing
removed from RAM longer displayed on
desktop
Memory characteristics and functions

Main memory is located physically close to the CPU, but not on
the CPU chip itself.

It provides the CPU with a working storage area for program
instructions and data.

It rapidly provides the data and instructions to the CPU.

Data in memory is stored in bits.

Usually bits are grouped together(8bits) to form what is called a
byte which represents a single character.
Storage capacities
 Memory and IS

Memory capacity will determine how effective an computer based
information systems(CBIS) is.

The specific applications of a CBIS determine the amount of
memory required for a computer system.

For example, a system that processes large volumes of data will
require more memory compared to a word processing application.
 Secondary storage

Compared with primary memory, secondary storage offers the
following advantages:
 nonvolatility,
 Greater capacity,
 and greater economy. On a cost-per-megabyte basis, most forms of
secondary storage are considerably less expensive than primary memory.

The selection of secondary storage media and devices requires
understanding their primary characteristics—access method,
capacity, and portability.
 Access methods


Data and information access can be either sequential or direct.

Sequential access means that data must be accessed in the order
in which it is stored.

Direct access means that data can be retrieved directly, without
the need to pass by other data in sequence.

With direct access, it is possible to go directly to and access the
needed data
 Cont


As with other computer system components, the access methods,
storage capacities, and portability required of secondary storage
media are determined by the information system’s objectives.

In addition to cost and portability, organizations must address
security issues to allow only authorized people to access sensitive
data and critical programs.
 Summary: Functional units of a computer
Input unit accepts Arithmetic and logic unit(ALU):
information: • Performs the desired
• Human operators, operations on the input
• Electromechanical devices information as determined
• Other computers by instructions in the memory

Memory
Arithmetic
Input

Instr1 & Logic

Instr2

Instr3

Data1
Output 
Data2 Control

I/O Processor
Stores
information: Control unit coordinates
Output unit sends various actions
• Instructions,
results of processing: • Input,
• To a monitor display, • Data
• Output
• To a printer • Processing