ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY

BY OJUNE

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 INTRODUCTION
• Anatomy: study of the structure of the body and
the physical relationships involved between body
parts.
• Physiology: study of how the parts of the body
work, and the ways in which they cooperate
together to maintain life and health of the
individual.
• Pathology: study of abnormalities and how they
affect body functions, often causing illness.
• Pathophysiology- is the study of the disordered
physiological
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processes that cause, result from, or
 LEVELS OF STRUCTURAL COMPLEXITY
• Cells: basic unit of life/the smallest independent units
of living matter
– Can’t be seen with the naked eye,
– Can be microscopically distinguished by their size, shape and
the dyes they absorb when stained in the laboratory.
• Cells with similar structures and functions form tissues.
• Different types of tissue form organs that carry out a
specific function.
• Systems consist of a number of organs and tissues that
together contribute to one or more survival needs of
the body.
• Organism-any
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or
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Levels of structural complexity
 ANATOMICAL TERMS
• Anatomical position
• Body planes
• Terms of position
• Terms of movement
 ANATOMICAL TERMS
• Anatomical position: The body is in the upright
position with the head facing forward, the arms at
the sides with the palms of the hands facing
forward and the feet together.
• Anatomical Plane - An imaginary surface formed by
extension through any axis of the body or through
two definite points on the body.

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 Anatomical planes
• Coronal (frontal or lateral) Plane - Plane running
from left to right, dividing the body into a front and
back portion.
• Midsagittal (median) Plane - Plane passing
longitudinally through the middle of the body from
front to back, dividing it into right and left halves.
• Sagittal (anterior-posterior) Plane - Plane that runs
from front to back, cutting the body into a right and a
left part. Parasagittal Plane: Sagittal plane that
divides the body into unequal right and left regions.
• Transverse - Plane that runs across the body, dividing
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into a top and bottom portion; also known as the
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 Anatomical position

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 Directional terms
They are used to describe the regions of the body
• Anterior-at or near front of the body
• Posterior- at or near back of the body
• Midline- right down at the middle
• Lateral- farther from midline
• Medial- near to midline
• Superior- toward the head/upper part structure
• Inferior- away from head,lower part structure
• Superficial- close to the surface of the body
• Deep- away from the surface of the body
• Proximal- near to the origination if the
structure
• Distal –farther from origination if the
structure
Movement in Planes and Axis of
Rotation
Movement in Planes and Axis of
Rotation
 Describing Position and Movement
• A body movement can be described in terms of the
anatomical plane through which it occurs and the
anatomical axis around which it rotates.

• The GENERAL RULE: The axis of rotation is

perpendicular to the plane of movement.
 Anatomical Axis
• Anatomical Axis: Axis are used to describe how
rotation of the muscles and bones take place.
• Longitudinal or polar axis: is in a “north-south”
relationship to the anatomical position.
• Horizontal or bilateral axis: is in an “east-west”
relationship to the anatomical position.
• Antero-posterior axis: is in a “front-to-back”
relationship to the anatomical position.
 Primary Axes of Rotation
• 1. Horizontal (Medio-Lateral) Axis: Runs from side
to side .Perpendicular to Sagittal Plane Typically
flexion/extension
• 2. Antero-Posterior (Sagittal) Axis: - Runs from
front to back. Perpendicular to the Coronal Plane
Typically abduction/adduction movements
• 3. Longitudinal (Vertical) Axis: -Runs straight
through the top of the head down between the feet
.. Perpendicular to the Transverse Plane Typically a
rotation type of movement
 Movt. in sagittal plane
• Flexion: Decreasing
angles between two
segments
• Extension: Increasing
angles between two
segments
• Hyperextension:
Increasing angles more
than 180°
• Major Joints involved :
Wrist, Elbow, Shoulder,
Hip, Knee, Trunk, Neck,
& Ankle

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 Movt. In frontal plane
•Abduction : Away from
midline
• Adduction: Closer to
midline
• Radial/Ulnar deviation
• Inversion/Eversion
• Later flexion to R/L
• Elevation/Depression
• Upward/Downward
rotation
• Major Joints
involved :Shoulder, Hip,
Wrist,
Ankle, Trunk, Neck, &
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Scapula
Movt. on transverse plane
•External/Internal rotation
• Horizontal
abduction/adduction
• Pronation: Palm down
• Supination: Palm up
• Rotation to R/L
•Protraction/Retraction**
• Major joints involved: Hip,
Shoulder, Radioulnar,
Neck,Trunk, & Scapula**

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 Helpful Hints….
• Axis of rotation is always perpendicular to the plane
of movement.
• In the anatomical position, all flexion/extension
occurs in the sagittal plane, all abduction/adduction
occurs in the frontal plane, and all rotation occurs in
the transverse plane.
• More involved movements are usually not in one
specific plane but occur as a combination of
motions from more than one plane.
 CELLS, TISSUES AND
ORGANISATION OF THE BODY
 THE CELL: STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS
• A cell consists of a
– plasma membrane
– organelles floating in a watery fluid called cytosol.
• Organelles: small structures with highly specialised
functions contained within a membrane.
• They include:
– nucleus,
– mitochondria,
– ribosomes,
– endoplasmic reticulum,
– Golgi apparatus,
– lysosomes,
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SIMPLE CELL
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 CELL STRUCTURE AND ITS FUNCTIONS
• All cells in the body have a cell membrane, which forms the
boundary of the cell.
• The cell is made of protoplasm, divided into 2:
– Cytoplasm: a gel-like substance in which many processes take
place.
– Nucleus: responsible for cell coordination and cell division. It is
made up of protein granules, and is surrounded by a membrane,
which separates it from the cytoplasm.
• The cell has two different nucleic acids:
– The ribonucleic acid (RNA); found in the nucleus & in the
cytoplasm.
– The deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA); found exclusively in the
chromosomes (in strands of chromatin) in the nucleus.
• Chromosomes: the units that are involved in the transfer of
the genetic material during the process of reproduction
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 PLASMA MEMBRANE
• Has 2 layers of phospholipids.
• Some extend all the way through the membrane
providing channels that allow the passage of
electrolytes and non-lipid-soluble substances.
• The phospholipid molecules have a
– Head; is electrically charged and hydrophilic ('water loving')
– Tail; has no charge and is hydrophobic ('water hating').
• The phospholipid bilayer is arranged like a sandwich
with the hydrophilic heads aligned on the outer surfaces
of the membrane and the hydrophobic tails forming a
central water-repelling layer.
• These differences influence the transfer of substances
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across the membrane.
• The membrane proteins perform several functions:
1) branched carbohydrate molecules attached to the
outside of some membrane protein molecules give
the cell its immunological identity
2) they can act as specific receptors for hormones
and other chemical messengers
3) some are enzymes
4) some are involved in transport across the
membrane.

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PLASMA MEMBRANE
 ORGANELLES
a) Nucleus
• Every cell in the body has a nucleus, with the exception
of mature erythrocytes (red blood cells).
• The largest organelle
• Contained within a membrane similar to the plasma
membrane but it has tiny pores through which some
substances can pass between it and the cytoplasm.
• Contains the body's genetic material, which directs the
activities of the cell. This is built from DNA and proteins
called histones coiled together forming a fine network of
threads called chromatin (resemble tiny strings of beads).
• During cell division the chromatin replicates and
becomes
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more tightly coiled forming chromosomes.
b) Mitochondria
• Sausage-shaped structures in the cytoplasm.
• Factories for production of energy.
• They are involved in aerobic respiration, the processes by
which chemical energy is made available in the cell.
• This is in the form of ATP, which releases energy when the
cell breaks it down.
c) Ribosomes
• Tiny granules composed of RNA and protein. They synthesise
proteins from amino acids, using RNA as the template.
• When present in free units or in small clusters in the
cytoplasm, the ribosomes make proteins for use within the
cell.
• Are also found on the outer surface of rough endoplasmic
reticulum
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d) Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
• A series of interconnecting membranous canals in
the cytoplasm.
• 2 types: smooth and rough.
• Smooth ER
– synthesises lipids and steroid hormones,
– associated with the detoxification of some drugs.
• Rough ER is studded with ribosomes.
– These are the site of synthesis of proteins that are
'exported' (extruded) from cells, i.e. enzymes and
hormones that pass out of their parent cell to be used by
other cells in the body.
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e) Golgi apparatus
• Consists of stacks of closely folded flattened membranous sacs
involved in protein and carbohydrate processing and transfer.
• Present in all cells but is larger in those that synthesise and
export proteins. The proteins move from the endoplasmic
reticulum to the Golgi apparatus where they are 'packaged' into
membrane- bound vesicles called secretory granules. The
vesicles are stored and, when needed, move to the plasma
membrane, through which the proteins are exported.
f) Lysosomes
• Secretory vesicle formed by the Golgi apparatus. They contain a
variety of enzymes involved in breaking down fragments of
organelles and large molecules (e.g. RNA, DNA, carbohydrates,
proteins) inside the cell into smaller particles that are either
recycled, or extruded from the cell as waste material.
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• Lysosomes in WBCs contain enzymes that digest
foreign material such as microbes.
g) Microfilaments: Tiny strands of protein that
provide structural support and maintain the
characteristic shape of the cell.
h) Microtubules: Contractile protein structures in the
cytoplasm involved in
– the movement of the cell
– Movement of organelles within the cell,
– the movement of cilia
– the organization of proteins in the plasma membrane.

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 CELL DIVISION
• Two types; mitosis and meiosis
• Mitosis
• Occurs in two stages:
– Replication of DNA, in the form of 23 pairs of chromosomes,
then division of the cytoplasm. DNA is the only type of molecule
capable of independently forming a duplicate of itself. When
the two identical sets of chromosomes have moved to the
opposite poles of the parent cell, a 'waist' forms in the
cytoplasm, and the cell divides. There is then a complete set of
chromosomes in each daughter cell.
• The organelles in the cytoplasm of the daughter cells are
incomplete at cell division but they develop as the cell
grows to maturity. The frequency with which cell division
occurs
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varies with different types of cell.
• Dead cells are replaced by other similar cells
through multiplication. The nervous system cells do
not get replaced.
• Cell division involves both processes of mitosis and
meiosis.
• Mitosis: the division of one cell into two similar
diploid daughter cells, which are identical to the
mother cell.
• Meiosis: the division of a cell to produce four
haploid daughter cells with different characteristics,
and are not identical to the mother cell. This occurs
during the production of spermatozoa and ova.
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 MEIOSIS
• Def: the process of cell division that occurs in the formation of
reproductive cells (gametes — the ova and spermatozoa).
• The ova grow to maturity in the ovaries of the female and the
spermatozoa in the testes of the male. In meiosis four daughter
cells are formed after two divisions.
• During meiosis the pairs of chromosomes separate and one
from each pair moves to opposite poles of the 'parent' cell.
When it divides, each of the 'daughter' cells has only 23
chromosomes, called the haploid number. This means that
when the ovum is fertilised the resultant zygote has the full
complement of 46 chomosomes (the diploid number), half
from the father and half from the mother.
• Thus the child has some characteristics inherited from the
mother and some from the father, such as colour of hair and
eyes, height, facial features, and some diseases.
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• Determination of sex depends upon one particular
pair of chromosomes: the sex chromosomes.
• Females; have X chromosomes…are the same size
and shape.
• Males; have one X chromosome and a slightly
smaller Y chromosome.
• When the ovum is fertilised by an X-bearing
spermatozoon the child is female and when it is
fertilised by a Y-bearing spermatozoon the child is
male.
• Sperm X + ovum X —> child XX = female
• Sperm Y + ovum X —> child XY = male
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 MUTATION
• Cells are said to mutate when their genetic make-up is altered
in any way.
• Mutation may cause:
– no significant change in cell function
– modification of cell function that may cause physiological
abnormality but does not prevent cell growth and multiplication,
e.g. inborn errors of metabolism, defective blood clotting
– the death of the cell.
• Some mutations occur by chance, others may be caused by
extraneous factors, such as X-rays, ultraviolet rays or some
chemicals.
• The most important mutations are those that occur in the ova
and spermatozoa. Genetic changes in these cells are passed
on to subsequent generations although they do not affect the
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• Assignment- read on transport of substances
acrosss the cell
 TISSUES
• 4 main types, each of which has subdivisions.
• They are:
• epithelial tissue or epithelium
• connective tissue
• muscle tissue
• nervous tissue.

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 1. EPITHELIAL TISSUES
• They
– cover the body surfaces
– line cavities and tubes.
– found in glands.
• Functions
– protection of underlying structures from, for example, dehydration,
chemical and mechanical damage
– Collective barrier
– secretion
– absorption.
• The cells are very closely packed and the intercellular
substance,(the matrix) is minimal..
• Epithelial tissue may be:
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simple: a single layer of cells
 classification
They are classified according to shape
• Squamous
• Cuboidal
• Columnar
According to layers
• Simple
• Stratified
• Pseudo stratified
• transitional
 A. Simple epithelium
• Consists of a single layer of identical cells
• Divided into four types.
• Usually found on absorptive or secretory surfaces,
where the single layer enhances these processes,
and not usually on surfaces subject to stress.
• The types are named according to the shape of the
cells, which differs according to their functions.
• The more active the tissue, the taller are the cells.

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a) Squamous (pavement) epithelium
• Composed of a single layer of flattened cells.
• The cells fit closely together like flat stones, forming
a thin and very smooth membrane.
• Diffusion takes place freely through this thin,
smooth, inactive lining of the following structures:
– heart
– blood vessels
– lymph vessels
– alveoli of the lungs.
• where it is also known as endothelium

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b) Cuboidal (cubical) epithelium
• Consists of cube-shaped cells fitting closely together
lying on a basement membrane.
• Forms the tubules of the kidneys & found in some
glands.
• Actively involved in secretion, absorption and excretion.
c) Columnar epithelium
• Formed by a single layer of cells, rectangular in shape,
on a basement membrane.
• Found lining the organs of the alimentary tract
• Consists of a mixture of cells; some absorb the products
of digestion and others secrete mucus.
• Mucus: a thick sticky substance secreted by modified
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Columnar epithelium.

Ciliated columnar epithelium.

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d) Ciliated epithelium
• Formed by columnar cells each of which has many
fine, hair-like processes, called cilia.
• The cilia consist of microtubules inside the plasma
membrane that extends from the free border
(luminal border) of the columnar cells.
• The wave-like movement of many cilia propels the
contents of the tubes, which they line in one
direction only.
• It lines the uterine tubes; the cilia propel ova
towards the uterus and most of the respiratory
passages; they propel mucus towards the throat
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 B. STRATIFIED EPITHELIA
• Consist of several layers of cells of various shapes. The
superficial layers grow up from below.
• Basement membranes are usually absent.
• Main function: To protect underlying structures from
mechanical wear and tear. .
a) Stratified squamous epithelium
• Composed of a no. of layers of cells of different shapes
representing newly formed and mature cells. In the deepest
layers the cells are mainly columnar and, as they grow towards
the surface, they become flattened and are then shed.
i. Non-keratinised stratified epithelium: Found on wet surfaces
that may be subjected to wear and tear but are protected
from drying, e.g. the conjunctiva of the eyes, the lining of the
mouth,
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ii. Keratinised stratified epithelium: Found on dry
surfaces that are subjected to wear and tear, i.e.
skin, hair and nails.
• Surface layer consists of dead epithelial cells to
which the protein keratin has been added forming a
tough, relatively waterproof protective layer that
prevents drying of the underlying live cells.
b. Transitional epithelium: Composed of several
layers of pear-shaped cells and is found lining the
urinary bladder.
• Allows for stretching as the bladder fills.

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 2. CONNECTIVE TISSUE
• Most abundant tissue in the body.
• The cells are more widely separated from each
other than those forming the epithelium, and
intercellular substance (matrix) is present in larger
amounts.
• Major functions:
– binding and structural support
– protection
– transport
– insulation.

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• It is the tissue that supports body structures
• It is found in every part of the body.
• Classified as
Loose connective tissue,
 dense connective tissue.
Specialized connective tissues- encompasses a
number of different tissues with specialized cells
and unique ground substances. Examples are ,
blood, lymph, cartilage.

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 LOOSE (AREOLAR) CONNECTIVE TISSUE
• Most generalized of all connective tissue.
• It holds organs in place and attaches epithelial to underlying
tissue
• Matrix is semisolid with many fibroblasts and some fat cells,
mast cells and macrophages widely separated by elastic and
collagen fibres.
• Found in almost every part of the body providing elasticity
and tensile strength.
• Connects and supports other tissues, e.g:
– under the skin
– between muscles
– supporting blood vessels and nerves
– in the alimentary canal
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 DENSE CONNECTIVE TISSUE
Helps attach muscles to bones and link bones
together at joint
a)Dense regular forms tendons and ligaments
b.Dense irregular- found in areas where tension is
exerted from different direction. forms much
dermis of the skin and joint capsules of limbs

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c) Elastic tissue
• Capable of considerable extension and recoil.
• Has few cells
• Matrix consists mainly of masses of elastic
fibres secreted by fibroblasts.
• Found in organs where alteration of shape is
required, e.g. in large blood vessel walls, the
epiglottis and the outer ears.

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 CELLS OF CONNECTIVE TISSUE
• Excluding blood, it’s found in all organs
supporting the specialized tissue.
• The different types of cell involved include:
– fibroblasts
– fat cells
– macrophages
– leukocytes
– mast cells.

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a) Fibroblasts.
• large flat cells with irregular processes.
• Produce collagen and elastic fibres and a matrix of
extracellular material.
• Particularly active in tissue repair (wound healing)
where they may bind together the cut surfaces of
wounds or form granulation tissue following tissue
destruction.

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b) Fat cells
• Also known as adipocytes
• Occur singly or in groups
• Abundant especially in adipose tissue.
c) Macrophages
• Irregular-shaped cells with granules in the cytoplasm.
• Some are fixed, i.e. attached to connective tissue fibres, and
others are motile.
• Important part of the body's defence mechanisms as they are
actively phagocytic, engulfing and digesting cell debris, bacteria
and other foreign bodies.
• Their activities are typical of those of the macrophage/
monocyte defence system, e.g. monocytes in blood,
phagocytes in the alveoli of the lungs, Kupffer cells in liver
sinusoids,
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d) Leukocytes
• Normally found in small numbers in healthy
connective tissue but migrate in significant numbers
during infection when they play an important part
in tissue defence.
• Lymphocytes synthesise and secrete specific
antibodies into the blood in the presence of foreign
material, e.g microbes.
e) Mast cells.
• They produce granules containing heparin,
histamine and other substances, which are released
when the cells are damaged by disease or injury.
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 CARTILAGE
• Much firmer tissue than any of the other connective tissues; the
cells are called chondrocytes and are less numerous. They are
embedded in matrix reinforced by collagen and elastic fibres.
• 3 types:
• hyaline cartilage
• fibrocartilage
• elastic fibrocartilage.
a) Hyaline cartilage
• Appears as a smooth bluish-white tissue.
• Chondrocytes are in small groups within cell nests and the matrix is
solid and smooth.
• Found:
• on the surface of the parts of the bones that form joints
• forming the costal cartilages, which attach the ribs to the sternum
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 Loose (areolar) connective tissue.
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Elastic tissue
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Elastic fibrocartilage
 BONE
• Connective tissue with cells (osteocytes)
surrounded by a matrix of collagen fibres that is
strengthened by inorganic salts, especially calcium
and phosphate. This provides bones with their
characteristic strength and rigidity.
• 2 types:
• compact bone — solid or dense appearance
• cancellous or spongy bone — spongy or fine
honeycomb appearance.

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 3. MUSCLE TISSUE
• 3 types, consisting of specialized contractile cells:
• skeletal muscle
• smooth muscle
• cardiac muscle.
a) Skeletal muscle tissue
• they are striated, striped and under voluntary control.
• Called voluntary because contraction is under conscious control.
• Cells are roughly cylindrical in shape and may be as long as 35 cm.
• Each cell, commonly called a fibre, has several nuclei situated just
under the sarcolemma or cell membrane of each muscle fibre.
• Muscle fibres lie parallel to one another and microscopically, they
show well-marked transverse dark and light bands, hence the
name striated or striped muscle.
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 SMOOTH (VISCERAL) MUSCLE TISSUE
• Also described as non-striated or involuntary.
• Not under conscious control.
• Found in the walls of hollow organs:
• regulating the diameter of blood vessels and parts of
the respiratory tract
• propelling contents of the ureters, ducts of glands and
alimentary tract
• expelling contents of the urinary bladder and uterus.
• Microscopically, the cells are spindle shaped with only
one central nucleus.
• No distinct sarcolemma but a very fine membrane
surrounds
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each fibre.
 CARDIAC MUSCLE TISSUE
• Found exclusively in the wall of the heart.
• Not under conscious control but microscopically, cross-
stripes characteristic of voluntary muscle can be seen. Each
fibre (cell) has a nucleus and one or more branches.
• The ends of the cells and their branches are in very close
contact with the ends and branches of adjacent cells.
Microscopically these 'joints', or intercalated discs, can be
seen as lines which are thicker and darker than the
ordinary cross-stripes.
• The end-to-end continuity of cardiac muscle cells has
significance in relation to the way the heart contracts.
• A wave of contraction spreads from cell to cell across the
intercalated discs which means that cells do not need to be
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stimulated individually.
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Cardiac muscle fibers
 Functioning of muscle tissue
• Muscle functions by alternate phases of contraction
and relaxation. When the fibres contract they become
thicker and shorter.
• Skeletal muscle fibres are stimulated by motor nerve
impulses originating in the brain or spinal cord and
ending at the neuromuscular junction.
• Smooth and cardiac muscle have the intrinsic ability
to initiate contraction.
• In addition, contraction is stimulated by autonomic
nerve impulses, some hormones and local
metabolites. When muscle fibres contract they follow
the all or none law; i.e. each fibre contracts to its full
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• The strength of contraction, e.g. lifting a weight,
depends on the number of fibres contracting at the
same time.
• When effort is sustained, groups of fibres contract
in series.
• Contraction of smooth muscle is slower and more
sustained than skeletal muscle.
• In order to contract when it is stimulated, a muscle
fibre must have an adequate blood supply to
provide sufficient oxygen, calcium and nutritional
materials and to remove waste products.

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01/27/2025 smooth muscle fibers
 NERVOUS TISSUE

• 2 types of tissue:
• excitable cells — called neurones; they
initiate, receive, conduct and transmit
information.
• non-excitable cells — support the neurones.

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 Dendrite

nucleus

Axon hillock
axon

Axon collateral

Axon terminal (synaptic

button)
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 HOMEOSTASIS
• Def: the maintenance of the internal environment in a fairly
constant state within narrow limits.
• It’s maintained by control systems which detect and respond to
changes in the internal environment.
• A control system has three basic components:
– detector,
– control centre and
– effector.
• Control centre:
– determines the limits within which the variable factor should be
maintained.
– receives an input from the detector or sensor,
– integrates the incoming information.
• When the incoming signal indicates that an adjustment is needed
the control centre responds and its output to the effector is
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 variables
This dynamic state of equilibrium is the condition of
optimal functioning for the organism and includes
many variables
• body temperature
• Fluid balance
• Fluid body temperature
• electrolytes
• Blood sugar level
• Ph level
 Negative feedback mechanisms
• In systems controlled by negative feedback the
effector response decreases the effect of the
original stimulus, restoring homeostasis.
• E.g; When body temperature falls below the preset
level, this is detected by specialised temperature
sensitive nerve endings. They transmit this
information as an input to the hypothalamus of the
brain which form the control centre.
• The output from the control centre activates
mechanisms that raise body temperature
(effectors).
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• These include:
– stimulation of skeletal muscles causing shivering
– narrowing of the blood vessels in the skin reducing the
blood flow to, and heat loss from, the peripheries
– behavioural changes, e.g. we put on more clothes or curl
up.
• When body temperature rises to within the normal
range, the temperature sensitive nerve endings no
longer stimulate the cells of the control centre and
therefore the output of this centre to the effectors
ceases.

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 Physiological negative feedback: ctrl of body temp.

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Examples of negative feedback mechanism

• Human blood pressure - When blood pressure

increases, signals are sent to the brain from
the blood vessels. Signals are sent to the heart
from the brain and heart rate slows down,
thus helping blood pressure to return to
normal.
• When a human is hungry, metabolism slows
down to conserve energy and allow the
human to continue living with less food.
• Regulation of blood sugar in humans - When blood
sugar rises, insulin sends a signal to the liver,
muscles and other cells to store the excess glucose.
Some is stored as body fat and other is stored as
glycogen in the liver and muscles.
• Production of human red blood cells
(erythropoiesis) - A decrease in oxygen is detected
by the kidneys and they secrete erythropoietin.
This hormone stimulates the production of red
blood cells.
 Positive feedback mechanisms
• Are few
• In positive feedback mechanisms, the stimulus
progressively increases the response, so that as long as the
stimulus is continued the response is progressively being
amplified (amplifier or cascade systems).
• E.g, blood clotting and uterine contractions during labour.
• During labour, contractions of the uterus are stimulated by
the hormone oxytocin. These force the baby's head into the
cervix of the uterus stimulating stretch receptors there. In
response to this, more of the hormone oxytocin is released,
further strengthening the contractions and maintaining
labour.
• After the baby is born the stimulus (stretching of the cervix)
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no longer present and the release of oxytocin stops
 BODY FLUIDS
• Total body water in adults is about 60% of body
weight.
– Extracellular water…..about 22% of body weight
– Intracellular water……about 38% of body weight
• Proportion is higher in
– young people and
– adults below average weight.
• It is lower in
– the elderly
– Obesity

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 Importance of water
1. It makes up part of all body fluids
2. It protects cells from outside pressure
3. It helps in the regulation of body temperature
4. It maintains intracellular pressure
5. It is involved in chemical reactions
6. It washes out wastes and is, therefore,
a medium of excretion

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 Extracellular Fluid (ECF)
• Fluid found outside cells
• ECF compartment is divisible in two compartments:
(1) Plasma, the fluid portion of blood, and (2) interstitial
fluid (IF), the fluid in the spaces between tissue cells.
• Consists of
– blood,
– plasma,
– lymph,
– cerebrospinal fluid
– fluid in the interstitial spaces of the body.
• Interstitial or intercellular fluid (tissue fluid) bathes all the
cells of the body except the outer layers of skin.
• It is the medium through which substances pass from blood
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the body cells, and from the cells to blood.
 INTRACELLULAR FLUID (ICF)
• The intracellular fluid is the fluid within the cells of
the body.
• Its composition is largely controlled by the cell itself,
because there are selective uptake and discharge
mechanisms present in the cell membrane.
• Thus, sodium levels are nearly ten times higher in
the ECF than in the ICF.
• This concentration difference occurs because
although sodium diffuses into the cell down its
concentration gradient there is a pump in the
membrane which selectively pumps it back out
again.
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 Distribution of body water in a 70 kg person.
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 ELECTROLYTES
• Def: An ionic compound that can conduct
electricity, e.g. sodium chloride solution
• Electrolytes are important body constituents
because:
– some conduct electricity, essential for muscle and nerve
function
– some exert osmotic pressure, keeping body fluids in their
own compartments
– some function in acid-base balance, as buffers to resist
pH changes in body fluids.

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 Important electrolytes in the body
a) Sodium
• Most abundant ion in the extra-cellular compartment.
• Functions
– Involved in the conduction of nerves and the contraction of
muscles.
– sodium is responsible for controlling the total amount of
water in the body. It is also important for regulating blood
volume
– Involved in the regulation of acid and base balance.
• The acid and base balance is maintained through the
exchange of hydrogen (H+) ions with sodium (Na+) ions
in the kidneys.
• Foods
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 Potassium

• Most abundant ion in the intracellular

compartment.
• Affects nerve conduction and muscle strength.
• regulating heartbeat
• Foods rich in potassium are ripe bananas,
avocados, oranges, potatoes and dates.
c) Calcium
• Makes compounds with other elements.
• Involved in proper nerve and muscle functioning.
• Acts as a co-factor in the blood clotting mechanism.
• Foods that are rich in calcium are grains, legumes, and
leafy vegetables.
d) Magnesium
• Involved in energy metabolism.
• synthesis of both DNA and RNA
• helps maintain normal nerve and muscle function,
boosts the immune system, maintains stable heart rate,
stabilizes blood sugar, and promotes the formation of
bones and teeth
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