ASSESSMENT OF THE ENVIRONMENTAL

HEALTH PRACTICES OF HOUSEHOLDS

IN IHOGBE COMMUNITY IN EDO STATE
BY
GROUP B 600 LEVEL MEDICAL STUDENTS
DEPARTMENT OF PUBLIC HEALTH AND COMMUNITY MEDICINE
UNIVERSITY OF BENIN
11TH SEPTEMBER, 2024
 GROUP MEMBERS
S/N NAMES MAT. NUMBER
52 ISOKPEHI EDWARD BRIGHT MED1606092
53 IYASELE CHRISTABEL EBEHIREME MED1508683
54 IYENGUNMWENA E. OSADEBAMWEN MED1606093
55 IYOMON OMONIGHO EMMANUELLA MED1504583
56 JAMOGHA NYERHOVWO MED1706226
58 MADEZIA EMMANUEL IKEMEFUNA MED1606095
59 MBEGBU IFEYINWA CHIAMAKA MED1508684

2
OUTLINE
• List of abbreviation
• Definition of terms
• Introduction
• Literature review
• Materials and Methods
• Results
• Discussion
• Recommendation
• Conclusion
• References
3
LIST OF ABBREVIATION
• CDC: Centre for Disease Control

• ESWMB: Edo State Waste Management Board

• LGA: Local Government Area

• NESREA: National Environmental Standards and Regulations

Enforcement Agency

• PAHO: Pan American Health Organization

4
LIST OF ABBREVIATION...
• SDGs: Sustainable Development Goals

• UNICEF: United Nation Children’s Fund

• WASH: Water, Sanitation and Hygiene

• WHO: World Health Organization

5
DEFINITION OF TERMS
• Environment: The complex of physical, chemical, and biotic factors
(such as climate, soil, and living things) that act upon an organism or
an ecological community and ultimately determine its form and
survival.
• Environmental Health: The branch of public health concerned with
all aspects of the environment that may affect human health,
encompassing the assessment and control of those environmental
factors (physical, chemical and biological that can potentially affect
health.

6
DEFINITION OF TERMS...
• Health: State of complete physical, mental and social well-being and
not merely the absence of disease or infirmity.
• Hygiene: Conditions or practices conducive to maintaining health and
preventing disease, especially through cleanliness.
• Pollution: The addition of any substance (solid, liquid, or gas) or any
form of energy (such as heat, sound, or radioactivity) to the
environment at a rate faster than it can be dispersed, diluted,
decomposed, recycled, or stored in some harmless form.

7
DEFINITION OF TERMS...
• Practice: The actual application or use of an idea, belief, or method, as
opposed to theories relating to it.
• Urban community: This is an area that is highly and densely
populated and has an availability of basic amenities, lots of resources,
and high employment opportunities.
• Urbanization: This is the population shift from rural to urban areas,
the corresponding decrease in the proportion of people living in rural
areas, and the ways in which societies adapt to this change.

8
DEFINITION OF TERMS...
• Vector: An organism, typically a biting insect or tick,
that transmits a pathogen, disease, or parasite from one animal or plant
to another.
• Waste: This is any substance discarded after primary use, or is
worthless, defective and of no use.

9
INTRODUCTION
Background
• Environmental health practices are crucial for the well-being of
communities, especially in developing regions where infrastructure
and awareness may be lacking.
(World Health Organization [WHO], 2023)
• These practices are key indicators for achieving the targets stipulated
in the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) 6, 11 and 12 which
address clean water and sanitation, sustainable cities and communities
and responsible consumption and production respectively.
(United Nations [UN], 2024)

10
INTRODUCTION...
Background…
• Nigeria is committed to a National Environmental Policy that ensures
sustainable development based on proper management of the
environment.
• This requires a number of complimentary policies, strategies and
management approaches that include housing and human
settlements,water resources managements, sanitation and waste
management etc.
(National Environmental Standards and Regulations Enforcement
Agency [NESREA], 2017)

11
INTRODUCTION...
Background...
• Access to clean and safe water is fundamental to public health, as
contaminated water is a primary vector for waterborne diseases such
as cholera, dysentery, and typhoid.
(WHO, 2024)
• Effective water treatment and proper storage practices are essential in
preventing contamination and ensuring the safety of drinking water in
the community.
(Center for Disease Control [CDC], 2024)

12
INTRODUCTION...
Background...
• Solid waste management is a crucial process that involves controlling
the generation, storage, collection, transfer, processing, and disposal of
solid wastes.
(Singh, 2024)
• Inadequate waste disposal can lead to the spread of infectious diseases,
pollution, and environmental degradation.
(Abubakar et al., 2022)

13
INTRODUCTION...
Background...
• Food hygiene practices are vital in preventing food borne illnesses, which are a
major public health concern, especially in areas with limited access to clean
water and sanitation.
(Manafe et al., 2023)
• Key aspects involve maintaining cleanliness, cooking food to the right
temperatures, avoiding cross-contamination, and ensuring proper food storage
conditions.
(Pan American Health Organization [PAHO], 2018)

14
INTRODUCTION...
Background...
• Housing conditions encompass the quality and safety of living environments,
including aspects such as structural integrity, sanitation, ventilation, and access
to clean water.
(Fakunle et al., 2018)
• Good housing conditions are essential for ensuring the health and well-being of
residents, reducing the risk of disease, and providing a safe and comfortable
living space.
(WHO, 2018)

15
 (Yoliswa Sobuwa, 2023)

INTRODUCTION...
Statement of Problem
• It was estimated that 1.4 million deaths and 74 million disability-
adjusted life-years could have been prevented globaly by safe Water
Sanitation and Hygiene (WASH) in 2019.
(WHO, 2023)
• Contaminated drinking water and poor sanitation increase
vulnerability to waterborne diseases such as cholera, resulting in over
70,000 deaths of children under 5 years annually in Nigeria.
(United Nation Children’s Fund [UNICEF], 2018)

16
INTRODUCTION...
Statement of Problem...
• Solid waste management remains a major environmental challenge in
most African countries.
• It has been reported that 80% of solid waste in African countries is
dumped indiscriminately in open spaces, streets, stormwater drains,
rivers, and streams, thereby estimated to contribute to about 29% of
the global green house gas (GHG) emissions and expected to increase
to 64% by 2030.
(UNICEF, 2018)

17
INTRODUCTION...
Statement of Problem...
• Poor food hygiene practices can result in the proliferation of food
borne illnesses, which are major public health concerns
• The World Health Organization reported that 500 million people
become ill and 230,000 people die yearly due to diarrhea diseases
associated with the ingestion of food already contaminated by
microbial pathogens.
(WHO, 2024)

18
INTRODUCTION...
Statement of Problem...
• The united nations revealed that in developing countries, 881 million
urban residents lived in these poor informal settlements in 2014 as
against 689 million in 1990.
(United Nations, 2016)
• Despite government and non-governmental efforts, poor housing
conditions persist in urban areas, leading to higher rates of respiratory
diseases, mental health issues, and increased susceptibility to
infectious diseases.
(Letlape, 2018)
19
INTRODUCTION...
Justification
• Findings from this study will build upon existing research, provide
new insight and strengthen evidence based environmental health
practices.
• Conclusions drawn from this study will help guide policy
implementation and resource allocation in the community.
• The results from this study will also help tailor interventions in the
community to improve their overall environmental health status.

20
INTRODUCTION...
Research Question
• What are the water treatment and storage practices in Ihogbe
community?
• What are the waste management practices in Ihogbe community?
• What are the food hygiene practices in Ihogbe community?
• What are the housing conditions in Ihogbe community?

21
INTRODUCTION...
General Objective
• To assess the environmental health practices in Ihogbe
community in Edo State to improve the overall health status of
members of the community.

22
INTRODUCTION...
Specific Objectives
1. To identify the water treatment and storage practices among
heads of households in Ihogbe community.
2. To ascertain the waste management practices among heads of
households in Ihogbe community.
3. To assess the food hygiene practices among heads of households
in Ihogbe community.
3. To assess the housing conditions of households in Ihogbe
community.

23
LITERATURE REVIEW
Water treatment and storage practices
• A cross sectional study was carried out in Burla, India in 2017
among 250 households to assess household water treatment and
storage practices.
• The study revealed that 53.2% of households consumed water
directly from the source for drinking, treatment methods like
boiling was used by 28.4%, membrane filters by 15.2% and only
3.2% used ceramic filters.
(Pradhan et al., 2018)

24
LITERATURE REVIEW...
Water treatment and storage practices...
• A community-based cross sectional study was conducted in
Bassa and Jos East LGA, in Plateau State in 2016 to assess
household management practices of drinking water.
• The findings revealed that 96.5% use wide mouthed vessels to
store water but only 51% of the containers were visibly clean.
Only 18.3% treated their water using straining through a cloth,
boiling, use of cholrine, alum and sedimentation respectively.
(Okoh et al., 2019)

25
LITERATURE REVIEW...
Waste management practices
• A cross-sectional study was done among 112 people living in
Mugda in Dhaka, Bangladesh in 2020 to assess the awareness
and practice of solid waste management among the people living
in thr community.
• The results of the study revealed 45% of households disposed of
waste using open dumping, 53% using waste collectors and 43%
of them recycled.
(Sultana et al., 2020)

26
LITERATURE REVIEW...
Waste management practices...
• A descriptive cross sectional study was carried out in 2017 among 120
households in Sokoto to assess the solid waste management practices.
• The findings indicated that 33.3% practiced open dumping, 15%
disposed their wastes in nearby drainage, 3.4% used waste collectors
while 48.3% used private cleaners.
(Shakamu and Shehu,
2017)

27
LITERATURE REVIEW...
Food hygiene and safety practices
• A community-based cross-sectional study was done in 2018 in
Dessie, Ethiopia, to evaluate food hygiene and safety measures
among food handlers in street food shops and food
establishments.
• The study revealed that 26% of food handlers in establishments
had a "very good" compliance score, while only 16% of those in
street food shops did. Additionally, 47% of street food handlers
had a "poor" compliance score, compared to 28% of handlers in
establishments.
(Adane et al., 2018)
28
LITERATURE REVIEW...
Food hygiene and safety practices..
• A descriptive cross-sectional study was carried out in Ilorin,
Nigeria in 2022 to evaluate knowledge and safety practices
among 869 meat consumers.
• The survey revealed that 43.5% regularly washed their hands
with soap and water before handling fresh meat and 46.7%
protected wounds with gloves before meat handling.
(Odetoku et al., 2022)

29
LITERATURE REVIEW...
Housing conditions
• A cross sectional study was carried out among 50 households in
Quetta, Pakistan in 2018 to assess the structural defects in residential
buildings.
• The findings showed 44% of the houses had structural cracks while
56% did not. 48% had fungus growing on their walls while 52% of
respondents did not. Seepage from roofs was found in 34% of houses.
(Kasi et al., 2018)

30
LITERATURE REVIEW...
Housing conditions...
• A cross sectional study was done to assess the housing quality
and environmental conditions amongst 187 house holds in
Akure, Nigeria in 2018.
• The study revealed that the respondents lived in different types
of accommodation ranging from tenement houses (25.1%), 1-2
bed room apartment (10.2%), 3-4 bed room bungalow (17%),
Duplexes (7.5%) and block of flats (40.6%).
(Zainal et al., 2018)

31
METHODOLOGY
Study Area
• The study was carried out in Ihogbe community in Oredo LGA, Benin
City, Edo State, Nigeria.
• Oredo LGA is one of the 18 local government areas in Edo State.
• It is divided into 12 administrative wards and has its headquaters in
the town of Benin city. It has an area of 249.6km 2 with a total
population of 374,515 at the 2006 census, with a projected population
of 553,300 in 2022.
(Oredo Government Council, 2024)

32
METHODOLOGY
Study Area...
• Ihogbe community is an urban community with private hospitals,
primar and secondary school.
• the geographical coordinates are 6035’16” North and 5061’86” East.
• It is a predominantly Benin-speaking community, but has other ethnic
groups like Esan, Isoko, Urhobo, Igbo, Hausa and Yoruba.

(Oredo Government Council, 2024)

33
METHODOLOGY…
Study Population
• The study was carried out among heads of households or their
representatives in Ihogbe community.
Study Design
• A cross-sectional study design was utilized for this study.
Study Duration
• The study was done between May 2023 to September 2024

34
METHODOLOGY…
Selection Criteria
• Inclusion Criteria
Heads of households or their representatives who were 18 years and
above and gave consent.
• Exclusion Criteria
Heads of households or their representatives who were too ill or
occupied at the time of the study.

35
METHODOLOGY…

Sample size determination

• The minimum sample size (n) was calculated using the Cochran
formula for a cross-sectional study.

Z 2pq
n
d
2
(Cochran, 1977)

36
METHODOLOGY...
Sample size determination...
• Where,
• n = minimum sample size
• z = standard normal deviate at 95% confidence level (1.96)
• p = proportion of the target population estimated to have a particular
characteristics.
• d = level of accuracy
• q = 1.0 – p

37
METHODOLOGY...
Sample size determination...
• The prevalence (p) was set at 0.68 based on a case study of solid waste
management in semi-urban communities in Orlu, Imo State, conducted
in 2016 in Nigeria which showed 70.5% in food hygiene and safety
practices.
(Iwu et al., 2016)
• “d” was taken as 0.05 at 95% confidence interval
• q = (1.0-p) = (1.0- 0.68) = 0.32

38
METHODOLOGY...
Sample size determination...
• n = 1.962 x 0.68 x 0.32 = 170.8
(0.05)2
• Since, a multistage sampling technique was used in selecting the
respondents, the calculated sample size was multiplied by a design
effect of 2.
• Thus, 170.8 x 2 = 341.6

39
METHODOLOGY...
Sample size determination...
• Therefore, the minimum sample size for this study is 326.4
• Calculating for non-response rate, 10% was added to the minimum
sample size, utilizing the formula for non-response rate
• nf = n/(1- nr)
• where;
• nf = Final sample size
• n = Minimum sample size
• nr = Non response of 10%
40
METHODOLOGY...
Sample size determination...
• nf = 341.6/ 0.9
• nf = 379.6
• Hence, the final minimum sample size was 380.
• A sample size of 391 was however used for this study.

41
METHODOLOGY…
Sampling technique
• A multi-stage sampling technique was used in the study.
Stage 1: Selection of Local Government Area
• Benin city has four (4) LGAs. Oredo was selected using simple
random sampling by balloting.
Stage 2: Selection of ward
• There are 12 wards in Oredo LGA including; Etete, Ibiwe, Ihogbe,
Ikpema, New Benin 1, New Benin 2, Ogbe, Ogbelaka, Oredo, Unueru,
Urubi, Uzebu.

42
METHODOLOGY…
Stage 2: Selection of ward…
• Ihogbe was selected using simple random sampling by balloting out of
the 12 electoral wards.
Stage 3: Selection of community
• Among the communities in Ihogbe ward ( Ihogbe, Ivbiore, Iyoba, Ore-
Oghene, Oliha), Ihogbe community was selected using simple random
sampling by balloting.

43
METHODOLOGY…
Stage 4: Selection of Households
• The community was divided into clusters A (Ihogbe 1) and B (Ihogbe
2) using a the landmark of the Old Western Street. Cluster A was
selected using simple random sampling by balloting.
• All households within cluster A that met the inclusion criteria were
used for the study.

44
METHODOLOGY...
Data Management
• Data was obtained using a structured interviewer administered
questionnaire comprising of both open and closed ended
questions.
• The standardization of the questionnaire was overseen by the
supervisors and final year medical students.
• The data collected was sorted, screened and analyzed with
International Business Machines Coporation (IBM) Statistical
Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) version 25.0

45
METHODOLOGY...
Data Management...
• The occupation of respondents were coded into skill levels 0 to 4
according to International Labour Organization (ILO) classification.
• This classification was modified to include;
• Skill Level 0: Housewives, students, retired and unemployed.
• Skill Level 1: Farmers, labourers, cleaners, cooks, maids and artisans.
• Skill Level 2: Traders, bus drivers, receptionists, civil servants, tailors
and sales attendants.
(International Labour Organization [ILO], 2012)

46
METHODOLOGY...
Data Management...
• Skill Level 3: Managers, sales representatives, technicians, laboratory
scientists, and computer operators.
• Skill Level 4: Medical doctors, pharmacists, accountants, lawyers,
engineers, nurses, teachers and musicians.
(ILO, 2012)

47
METHODOLOGY...
Data Management…
Water treatment and storage practices
Scoring
• A score of one (1) was given to good sources of water supply,
practices of treating drinking water, storage of water in covered
containers and cleaning of water storage containers were each given.
• A score of zero (0) was given to poor sources of water supply and
lack of any of aforementioned practices were each given.

48
METHODOLOGY...
Data Management…
Water treatment and storage practices...
Scoring...
• These scores were converted into percentages and scores <50% were
considered as poor water treatment and storage practices, while scores
≥50% were considered as good practices.

49
METHODOLOGY...
Data management…
Waste disposal practices
Scoring
• Respondents who disposed of refuse via waste collectors were said to
have sanitary refuse disposal methods while those who burned, buried,
dumped into drainage or practiced open dumping were said to have
unsanitary refuse disposal methods.

50
METHODOLOGY...
Data management…
Waste disposal practices...
Scoring...
• Respondents who used a water closet or ventilated improved pit (VIP)
latrine were said to have sanitary sewage disposal methods, while
those who used pit latrine, defecated in bushes, water bodies or
bucket system were said to have unsanitary sewage disposal methods.

51
METHODOLOGY...
Data management…
Waste disposal practices...
Scoring...
• Sanitary methods of sewage and refuse management were given a
score of one (1). Unsanitary methods were given a score of zero (0)
• The total score for each respondent was computed and respondents
who had a score of two (2) were said to have sanitary methods of
waste disposal, while respondents who had scores less than two (<2)
had unsanitary methods of waste disposal.

52
METHODOLOGY...
Data management…
Food hygiene practices
Scoring
• Part of this section was assessed using a four point likert scale
(always, sometimes, rarely and never). Responses that were most
hygienic were scored three (3) while responses that were least
hygienic were scored zero (0)

53
METHODOLOGY...
Data management…
Food hygiene practices...
Scoring...
• Respondents who wore aprons/head covers during food preparation, and
stored cooked food appropriately were said to have good food hygiene
practices and were given a score of one (1). Poor practices and lack any
of the aforementioned were given a score of zero (0)
• These scores were converted into percentages and scores <50%
were considered as inadequate food hygiene practices while score
≥50% were considered adequate food hygiene practices.
54
METHODOLOGY...
Data management…
Housing condition
Scoring
• Houses which were not overcrowded, had two or more windows per
room positioned on opposite walls and contained no cracks in the wall,
floor or roof were tagged good housing conditions while houses that
did not meet up with these criteria were tagged poor housing
conditions.
• Household size less than 6 was regarded as a small family size while
household size greater than 6 was regarded as a large family size.
55
METHODOLOGY...
Data management…
Housing condition...
Scoring...
• Houses where more than two persons occupied the same room were
said to be overcrowded.
• Good housing conditions were assigned a score of one (1). Poor
housing conditions, a score of zero (0)
• The total score for each respondent was converted into percentages
and scores <50% were considered poor housing, while scores ≥50%
were considered good housing.
56
METHODOLOGY...
Ethical considerations
• Permission was obtained from the Oredo LGA authorities and the
Odionwere of Ihogbe community before the study was carried out.
• Informed consent was obtained from the respondents before
administration of the questionnaire.
• Confidentiality of information obtained was assured by using serial
numbers instead of names of respondents.

57
RESULTS
• A total of 391 respondents of Ihogbe community participated in the
study giving a response rate of 100%.
• The results are presented in line with the specific objectives in the
following sections.
Section A: Sociodemographic of respondents
Section B: Water treatment and storage practices
Section C: Waste disposal practices
Section D: Food hygiene practices
Section E: Housing conditions

58
 SECTION A
SOCIODEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS OF
RESPONDENTS

59
RESULTS...
Table 1: Age group of respondents in Ihogbe community
Age Group (years) Frequency (n=391) Percent
18 – 29 97 24.8
30 – 39 108 27.6
40 – 49 87 22.3
50 – 59 54 13.8
60 – 69 22 5.6
≥70 23 5.9
Mean age + SD 41.0 ± 14.9

60
RESULTS...
Table 2: Sex and religion of respondents in Ihogbe community

Variable Frequency (n=391) Percent

Sex
Female 264 67.5
Male 127 32.5
Religion
Christianity 322 82.4
Islam 63 16.1
ATR* 6 1.5
*African Traditional Religion
61
RESULTS...
Table 3a: Ethnic group of respondents in Ihogbe community
Ethnic Group Frequency (n=391) Percent
Benin 132 33.8
Igbo 66 16.9
Yoruba 61 15.6
Esan 25 6.4
Etsako 22 5.6
Urhobo 14 3.6
Hausa 14 3.6

62
RESULTS...
Table 3b: Ethnic group of respondents in Ihogbe community
Ethnic Group Frequency (n=391) Percent
Ibibio 11 2.8
Isoko 9 2.3
Auchi 4 1.0
Igala 3 0.8
Owan 3 0.8
Others* 27 6.8
*Tiv, Ukpe, Ososo, Igbanke, Efik, Ibira, Anan, Kwale and Itsekiri.
63
RESULTS...
Table 4: Skill level of respondents in Ihogbe community

Skill Level Frequency (n=391) Percent

0 57 14.6
1 36 9.2
2 117 29.7
3 160 40.9
4 22 5.6

64
RESULTS...
Table 5: Level of education of respondents in Ihogbe community
Level of education Frequency (n=391) Percent

No formal education 32 8.2

education
Primary 75 19.2
Secondary 222 56.8
Tertiary 62 15.9

65
RESULTS...
Table 6: Marital status of respondents in Ihogbe community

Marital status Frequency (n=391) Percent

Single 75 19.2
Married 271 69.3
Widowed 26 6.6
Divorced 8 2.0
Separated 7 1.8
Cohabiting 4 1.0

66
RESULTS...
Table 7: Marriage type and household size of respondents in Ihogbe
community
Variable Frequency Percent
Marriage Type(n=308)
Monogamous 280 90.9
Polygamous 28 9.1
Family Type(n=382)
Nuclear 323 84.6
Extended 59 15.4

67
RESULTS...
Table 8: Household income of respondents in Ihogbe community
Household income Frequency (n=386) Percent
<40,000 182 46.5

40,000-100,000 152 39.4

>100,000 52 13.5

68
 SECTION B
WATER TREATMENT AND STORAGE PRACTICES

69
RESULTS...
Table 9: Source of drinking water among respondents in Ihogbe
community
Main source Frequency (n=391) Percent
Borehole 200 51.2
Sachet water 173 44.2
Municipal water supply 10 2.6
Well 4 1.0
Stream/river 2 0.5
Rain 2 0.5

70
RESULTS...
Table 10: Treatment of drinking water among respondents in
Ihogbe community
Treatment of Frequency (n=391) Percent
drinking water
No 336 85.9
Yes 55 14.1

71
RESULTS...

Table 11: Water treatment method among respondents in Ihogbe

community
Water treatment Frequency (n=55) Percent
method*
Boiling 36 26.5
Chlorine 16 11.8
Alum 2 1.5
Water filtering 1 0.7

* Multiple response

72
RESULTS...
Table 12: Drinking water storage among respondents in Ihogbe
community
Storage of drinking Frequency (n=391) Percent
water
Yes 247 63.2

No 144 36.8

73
RESULTS...
Table 13: Drinking water storage method among respondents in
Ihogbe community
Water storage method* Frequency (n=247) Percent
Containers with closed 197 79.8
cover
Overhead tank 24 9.7
Containers with open covers 16 6.5
Water reservoir 14 5.7
Others** 5 2.0
*Multiple response, **Bags of water, fridge, on the floor

74
RESULTS...
Table 14: Perceived physical quality of water of among respondents
in Ihogbe community
Perceived physical Frequency (n=391) Percent
quality*
Colourless 385 98.5

Odourless 378 96.7

Tasteless 341 88.7

* Multiple response

75
 166
(42.5%)
Good Practices
225
(57.5%) Poor Practices

Figure 1: Pie-chart of water treatment and storage practices in

Ihogbe community
76
RESULTS...
Table 15: Age and water treatment and storage practices among
respondents in Ihogbe community
Age Group Water practices Chi- p-value
(Years) Good (n=225) Poor (n=166) square
Frequency (%) Frequency (%)
18 - 29 52 (53.6) 45 (46.4) 6.810 0.237
30 - 39 57 (52.8) 51 (47.2)
40 – 49 59 (67.8) 28 (32.2)
50 – 59 34 (63.0) 20 (37.0)
60 – 69 11 (50.0) 11 (50.0)
≥70 12 (52.2) 11 (47.8)

77
RESULTS...
Table 16: Sex, Size of household and water treatment and storage
practices among Respondents in Ihogbe community
Variables Water practices Chi- p-value
Good (n=225) Poor (n=166) square
Frequency (%) Frequency (%)
Sex
Females 155 (58.7) 109 (41.3) 0.453 0.514
Males 70 (55.1) 57 (44.9)
Household
size
<6 141 (57.1) 106 (42.9) 0.058 0.833
≥6 84 (58.3) 60 (41.7)
78
RESULTS...
Table 17: Level of Education and water treatment and storage
practices among respondents in Ihogbe community
Level of Water practices Chi- p-value
Education Good (n=225) Poor (n=166) square
Frequency (%) Frequency (%)
No formal 20 (62.5) 12 (37.5) 0.556 0.908
education
Primary 44 (58.7) 31 (41.3)
Secondary 127 (57.2) 95 (42.8)
Tertiary 34 (54.8) 28 (45.2)

79
RESULTS...
Table 18: Skill level and water treatment and storage practices
among respondents in Ihogbe community
Skill level Water practices Chi- p-value
Good (n=225) Poor (n=166) square
Frequency (%) Frequency (%)
0 31 (55.4) 25 (44.6) 2.373 0.671
1 20 (55.6) 16 (44.4)
2 65 (56.0) 51 (44.0)
3 93 (58.1) 67 (41.9)
4 16 (72.7) 6 (27.3)

80
 SECTION C
WASTE DISPOSAL PRACTICES

81
RESULTS...
Table 19: Refuse storage among respondents in Ihogbe community

Storage of refuse Frequency (n=391) Percent

Yes 365 93.4

No 26 6.6

82
RESULTS...
Table 20: Refuse storage method among respondents in Ihogbe
community
Method of refuse storage Frequency (n=365) Percent

Polythene bags 275 75.3

Containers without covers 37 10.1
Containers with cover 25 6.8
Others* 28 7.7

*open disposal, sack bags

83
RESULTS...
Table 21: Refuse disposal method among respondents in Ihogbe
community
Method of refuse disposal Frequency (n=391) Percent

Waste collectors 320 81.8

Burning 46 11.8
Open dumping 21 5.4
Burying 2 0.5
Dumping into drainage 1 0.3
Others* 1 0.3
*bush

84
RESULTS...
Table 22: Sewage disposal method among respondents in Ihogbe
community
Sewage disposal method* Frequency (n=391) Percent

Water closet 295 75.4

Pit latrine 67 17.1
Ventilated improved pit 15 3.9
latrine
Bucket 14 3.6
*Multiple response

85
 126
(32.2%)
Sanitary
265
(67.8%) Unsanitary

Chart 2: Pie-chart of waste disposal practices in Ihogbe community

86
RESULTS...
Table 23: Age group and waste disposal practices among respondents
in Ihogbe community
Age Group Waste disposal practices Chi- p-
(Years) square value
Sanitary (n=265) Unsanitary (n=126)
Frequency (%) Frequency (%)
18 – 29 53 (54.6) 44 (45.4) 10.731 0.056
30 – 39 80 (74.1) 28 (25.9)
40 – 49 61 (70.1) 26 (29.9)
50 – 59 39 (72.2) 15 (27.8)
60 – 69 15 (68.2) 7 (31.8)
≥70 17 (73.9) 6 (26.1)

87
RESULTS...
Table 24: Sex, Household size and waste disposal practices among
respondents in Ihogbe community
Variable Waste disposal practices Chi- p-
square value

Sanitary (n=265) Unsanitary (n=126)

Frequency (%) Frequency (%)
Sex
Female 174 (65.9) 90 (34.1) 1.296 0.299
Male 91 (71.7) 36 (28.3)
Household
size
<6 167 (67.6) 80 (32.4) 0.008 >0.999
≥6 98 (68.1) 46 (31.9)
88
RESULTS...
Table 25: Skill level and waste disposal practices among respondents in
Ihogbe community
Skill level Waste disposal practices Chi- p-value
Sanitary (n=265) Unsanitary square
Frequency (%) (n=126)
Frequency (%)
0 36 (64.3) 20 (35.7) 1.584 0.813
1 22 (61.1) 14 (38.9)
2 81 (69.8) 35 (30.2)
3 110 (68.8) 50 (31.3)
4 16 (72.7) 6 (27.3)

89
RESULTS...
Table 26: Level of education and waste disposal practices among
respondents in Ihogbe community
Level of Waste disposal practices Chi- p-value
Educatio Sanitary (n=265) Unsanitary square
n Frequency (%) (n=126)
Frequency (%)
No formal 16 (50.0) 16 (50.0) 13.984 0.003
education
Primary 50 (66.7) 25 (33.7)
Secondary 146 (65.8) 76 (34.2)
Tertiary 53 (85.5) 9 (14.5)

90
 SECTION D
FOOD HYGIENE PRACTICES

91
 50
(12.8
%)

Poor Practices
341 Good Practices
(87.2
%)

Chart 3: Showing a pie chart of food hygiene practices in Ihogbe

community

92
RESULTS...
Table 27: Age and food hygiene practices among respondents in
Ihogbe community
Age Group Food hygiene practices Chi- p-
(Years) square value
Good (n=341) Poor (n=50)
Frequency (%) Frequency (%)
18 – 29 85 (87.6) 12 (12.4) 2.978 0.708
30 – 39 94 (87.0) 14 (13.0)
40 – 49 73 (83.9) 14 (16.1)
50 – 59 50 (92.6) 4 (7.4)
60 – 69 20 (90.9) 2 (9.1)
≥70 19 (82.6) 4 (17.4)

93
RESULTS...
Table 28: Sex, Size of household and food hygiene practices among
respondents in Ihogbe community
Variables Food hygiene practices Chi- p-value
square
Good (n=341) Poor (n=50)
Frequency (%) Frequency (%)
Sex
Female 234 (88.6) 30 (11.4) 1.478 0.258
Male 107 (84.3) 20 (15.7)
Household
Size
<6 213 (86.2) 34 (13.8) 0.575 0.531
≥6 128 (88.9) 16 (11.1)
94
RESULTS...
Table 29: Level of education of respondent and food hygiene
practices among respondents in Ihogbe community
Level of Food hygiene practices Chi- p-
education square value
Good (n=341) Poor (n=50)
Frequency (%) Frequency (%)
No formal 28 (87.5) 4 (12.5) 3.105 0.386
education
Primary 61 (81.3) 14 (18.7)
Secondary 198 (89.2) 24 (10.8)
Tertiary 54 (87.1) 8 (12.9)
95
RESULTS...
Table 30: Skill level of respondent and food hygiene practices among
respondents in Ihogbe community
Skill level of Food hygiene practices Chi- p-value
respondent square
Good (n=341) Poor (n=50)
Frequency (%)

Frequency (%)
0 44 (78.6) 12 (21.4) 7.823 0.097
1 30 (83.3) 6 (16.7)
2 103 (88.8) 13 (11.2)
96
 SECTION E
HOUSING CONDITIONS

97
RESULTS...
Table 31: Housing type of respondents in Ihogbe community
Housing type Frequency (n=391) Percent
Passage house 156 49.9
Flat 139 35.5
Self-contained 66 16.9
Mud house 13 3.3
Duplex 11 2.8
Apartment 3 0.8
Others* 3 0.8
*Room and parlour
98
RESULTS...
Table 32: Housing conditions among respondents in Ihogbe
community
Variable Frequency (n=391) Percent
Cracks in walls
Yes 134 34.3
No 257 65.7
Cracks in floor
Yes 101 25.8
No 290 74.2
Cracks in ceiling
Yes 67 17.1
No 324 82.9

99
 113
(28.9%)
278 Poor Housing
(71.1%) Good Housing

Chart 4: Pie chart of housing conditions in Ihogbe community

100
RESULTS...
Table 33: Age group and housing conditions among respondents in Ihogbe
community
Age Group Housing Condition Chi- p-value
(years) Good (n=278) Poor (n=113) square
Frequency (%) Frequency (%)

18 – 29 60 (61.9) 37 (38.1) 9.648 0.085

30 – 39 84 (77.8) 24 (22.2)
40 – 49 61 (70.1) 26 (29.9)
50 – 59 36 (66.7) 18 (33.3)
60 – 69 18 (81.8) 4 (18.2)
≥70 19 (82.6) 4 (17.4)
101
RESULTS...
Table 34: Sex and housing conditions among respondents in Ihogbe
community
Variables Housing Condition Chi- p-value
Good (n=278) Poor (n=113) square
Frequency (%) Frequency (%)
Sex
Female 184 (69.7) 80 (30.3) 0.778 0.406
Male 94 (74.0) 33 (26.0)
Household
size
<6 180 (72.9) 67 (27.1) 1.028 0.355
≥6 98 (68.1) 46 (31.9)
102
RESULTS...
Table 35: Skill level and housing conditions among respondents in
Ihogbe community
Skill level Housing Condition Chi- p-value
Good (n=278) Poor (n=113) square
Frequency (%) Frequency (%)
0 39 (68.4) 18 (31.6) 3.097 0.548
1 25 (69.4) 11 (30.6)
2 77 (66.4) 39 (33.6)
3 120 (75.0) 40 (25.0)
4 17 (77.3) 5 (22.7)
103
RESULTS...
Table 36: Level of education and housing conditions among
respondents in Ihogbe community
Level of Housing Condition Chi- p-value
education Good (n=278) Poor (n=113) square
Frequency (%) Frequency (%)
No formal 15 (46.9) 17 (53.1) 19.192 <0.001
education
Primary 55 (73.3) 20 (26.7)
Secondary 153 (68.9) 69 (31.1)
Tertiary 55 (88.7) 7 (11.3)
104
DISCUSSION
• Findings from this study revealed that the mean age was 41 and the
standard deviation was 41.9 in Ihogbe community, most of whom had
secondary education and were predominately female.
• This demographic composition is comparable to that of descriptive
cross-sectional studies conducted in Calabar in 2022, where the
majority of participants were female and had secondary education.
(Okon et al., 2022)

105
DISCUSSION...
• The study indicates that the majority of respondents in the Ihogbe
community have access to improved drinking water sources, primarily
borehole and sachet water. This could be because they are readily
available and affordable.
• This is in line with a study carried out among households located in
Northern India in 2024 where borehole water was the main source of
drinking water among the residents.
(Saxena et al., 2024)
• Potable water reduces the risk of water-borne diseases.

106
DISCUSSION...
• The physical qualities of drinking water in the community were
perceived by majority of residents to be colourless, odourless and
tasteless.
• This aligns with findings from a study done among heads of
households in a community in Delta State, Nigeria where a majority of
respondents reported that their drinking water was colourless,
odourless and tasteless.
(Edeki et al., 2023)

107
DISCUSSION...
• Having good water protects individuals from water related diseases
such as cholera, diarrhoea, dysentery, and typhoid, leading to reduced
healthcare expenses and increased economic productivity.

108
DISCUSSION...
• This study revealed that most of households had good storage and
treatment practices. This could be because they use prepackaged
sachet water which does not necessarily need treatment or extensive
storage practices before consumption.
• This is similar to a study done in 2018 in UHTC among households
which showed that majority had good practice towards water treatment
and storage.
(Pradhan et al., 2018)
• Good water treatment and storage practices helps in the reduction of
water borne diseases in the community.

109
DISCUSSION...
• This study assessed the waste management practices in the Ihogbe
community, and over two third of residents adhered to sanitary
methods of waste disposal. However, some households still practice
unsanitary methods of waste management.
• This is similar to a study done in Ogun State among five local
government areas, wherein two third of the respondents also disposed
of their wastes using sanitary methods.
(Olukanni, Iyiola and Esu, 2021)

110
DISCUSSION...
• This shows that most households have awareness of the waste
collection services and a few households do not utilise them. This may
be due to the cost of these services. As a result, residents turn to
alternative practices that are unsanitary. This gives room for disease
carrying organisms to manifest in the households.
• This also reveals a gap in both community practice and agency
services, suggesting that there is still room for improvement

111
 DISCUSSION…
• The study also revealed that of respondents always wash their hands
before handling food. This suggests that hand hygiene messages may
have been more effectively disseminated in Ihogbe community.
• A similar study done in Ethiopia in 2022 found that majority of food
handlers regularly washed their hands before food preparation.
(Yemane and Tamene, 2022)
• Continued education and provision of safe potable water may further
increase hand hygiene compliance.

112
DISCUSSION...
• The study revealed that most of the respondents demonstrated
adequate food hygiene practices.
• This may be attributed to effective health education programs, cultural
norms promoting cleanliness, and increased awareness about
foodborne illnesses.
• These results are comparable to a study conducted in Ghana in 2021,
which found that majority of the respondents separated uncooked and
cooked meals before storage, and most agreed that cleaning kitchen
equipment and the environment lessens the risk of food borne
infection.
(Ogundele et al., 2021)
113
DISCUSSION…
• This lack of proper food hygiene could predispose the consumers of
such food to diarrhea diseases, such as gastroenteritis and cholera,
which could lead to widespread infections.
• Proper education and training of food handlers by the government
could aid in improving hygiene practices among food handlers.

114
DISCUSSION…
• The survey showed that majority of the population lived in passage houses
which could be as a result of their low socioeconomic status.
• This is similar to study which was done in 2023 on the Effects of Poverty
on Urban Residents Living and Housing Conditions amongst 400 in
Ogbomosho,Oyo State in Nigeria which showed that majority of the
respondents lived in passage houses.
(Assefa et al., 2023)
• Consequently, this housing condition could lead to over crowding and
poor environment sanitation practices which increase the propensity for
the spread of communicable diseases.

115
DISCUSSION…
• Furthermore, the study revealed that a vast majority had good housing
which could be as a result of their levels of education.
• Which is in contrast with a cross sectional study carried out in Ibadan,
Nigeria in 2017 on the Challenges of urban housing quality and its
associations with neighbourhood environments which showed that
only a minor proportion had good housing conditions.
(Coker et al., 2017)
• Good water sources, waste management, and environmental sanitation
can help reduce the spread of communicable diseases, water-borne,
and food borne illnesses.
116
CONCLUSION
• In the Ihogbe community, most of respondents practiced good water
treatment and storage practices.
• Waste management practices in the Ihogbe community were carried
out using sanitary methods among the majority of households.
• Most of the households in the Ihogbe community also practiced
adequate food hygiene.
• Majority of households in the Ihogbe community had good housing
conditions.

117
 RECOMMENDATIONS
TO THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT
• The federal government should strengthen and update national
environmental health standards for air quality, water safety, sanitation, and
waste management.
• The federal government should also establish grant programs to support
the local government of the community to implement environmental health
initiatives.
• The federal government should also strengthen nationwide public
awareness on environmental sanitation.

118
RECOMMENDATIONS...
TO THE EDO STATE GOVERNMENT
• Strenghthen the enforcement of existing waste management policies.
• Launch educational campaigns to inform residents about regular
housing maintenance practices and how to detect and address
common issues such as cracks and leakages.
• Community wide awareness by use of radio, television, social
media, and community events to raise awareness about the
importance of safe storage practices and consumption of clean water

119
RECOMMENDATIONS...
TO THE OREDO LOCAL GOVERNMENT
• Offer workshops on basic home repair skills, focusing on fixing cracks
and other minor structural issues.
• Use local media and community events to raise awareness about the
importance of food hygiene and share practical tips.
• Assess the community to identify any water treatment and storage
issues and prioritize interventions based on the findings.

120
RECOMMENDATIONS...
TO THE COMMUNITY LEADERS
• Regularly maintain their home by checking for and addressing small
issues before they become larger problems.
• Continued patronage of the community waste collection services and
members who do not should adopt better waste mgt methods.

121
RECOMMENDATIONS...
TO MEMBERS OF THE COMMUNITY
• Members of the community should dispose of their waste properly and
minimize waste generation by choosing reusable products over
disposable ones.
• They should ensure their households have adequate sanitation
facilities and that they are properly maintained.
• They should join and support local government groups or initiatives
that focus on improving the community’s environmental health.

122
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