BEE 101 APPLIED ELECTRONICS

JEMIMA Y. ANSU GYAU

What to expect?

Smoothing Zener Light

Capacitors diodes Emitting
Diodes

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APPLICATIONS OF SEMI-
CONDUCTOR DIODES - 2

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 1. SMOOTHING
CAPACITOR
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A smoothing capacitor is used to filter out the AC
component present in a rectified DC voltage.

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Smoothing capacitor
The output obtained by the rectifier is not pure dc but it contains some
ac components along with the dc output.
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These ac components are called as ripples, which are undesirable or

unwanted.
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• To minimize the ripples in the rectifier output, filter circuits are used.

• These circuits are normally connected between the rectifier and load.

The smoothing capacitor is a filter that can be used for filtering the ac
component
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1. Half-Wave Rectifier with Capacitor Filter
A capacitor filter is connected in parallel with the load. The rectifier
circuit is supplied from a transformer.
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Positive Half Cycle

• During the positive half cycle, diode D1 will conduct, and the capacitor
charges rapidly.

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1. Half-Wave Rectifier with Capacitor Filter
Negative Half Cycle
• As the input starts to go negative, D1 turns off, and the capacitor will
slowly discharge through the load.

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Output Waveforms with Capacitor Filter

(a) Unfiltered output from the half wave rectifier

(b) When the next pulse does arrive, it charges the capacitor back
to full charge as shown above. The thick line shows the charge –
discharge waveform at the capacitor.

(c) The load sees a reasonably constant DC

voltage now, with a ripple voltage on top of it. 8
Detailed Analysis of Filtering Output
Positive Half Cycle
• During each positive half cycle, the capacitor charges during the
interval t1 to t2.

• During this interval, the diode will be forward biased.

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Detailed Analysis of Filtering Output
Positive Half Cycle
Due to this charging, the voltage across the capacitor vo will be equal to
the AC peak voltage Vm on the secondary side of the transformer at t2
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(assuming diode forward voltage drop is zero).

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Detailed Analysis of Filtering Output
Negative Half Cycle
The capacitor will supply current to load resistor R L during time interval
t2 to t3.
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During this interval, diode will be reverse biased since the AC voltage is
less than the output voltage vo.
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Detailed Analysis of Filtering Output
Negative Half Cycle
• Due to the large energy stored in the capacitor, the capacitor voltage
will not reduce much during t2 to t3, and the voltage vo will remain close
to the peak value.

As can be seen, addition of the capacitor results in much better quality

output voltage.
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Average Load Voltage
In practical applications, a very large capacitor is used so that the
output voltage is close to the peak value.
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The average voltage (also called DC output voltage) across the load can
therefore be approximated to:
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Vave Vm

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Calculation of Capacitance Value
The voltage waveforms show a small AC component called “ripple”
present in the output voltage.
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This ripple can be minimized by choosing the largest capacitance value

that is practical.
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The capacitor is typically “electrolytic” type, and is very large (several

hundreds or even thousands of microfarads).
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Electrolytic
Capacitor 14
Calculation of Capacitance Value
• We can calculate the required value of the filter capacitor as follows.

The charge removed from the capacitor during the discharge cycle (i.e.,
t2 to t3) is:
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∆Q ILT

Where IL is the average load current and T is the period of the AC

voltage. As the interval t1 to t2 is very small, the discharge time can be
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approximated to T.

If Vp-p is the peak-to-peak ripple voltage, and C is the capacitance, the

charge removed from the capacitor can also be expressed as:
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Calculation of Capacitance Value
• From the two above equations, capacitance C can be calculated as:
C = Farads

• Our goal is to produce a constant dc output voltage.

The filter capacitor will remove most of the variations in our rectifier
output waveform.
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The amount of ripple voltage left by a given filter depends on the three
things:
1. Type of rectifier (half or full wave)
2. The capacity of the filter capacitor
3. The load resistance 16
Example 4
In the circuit of example 1, a 10000µF filter capacitor is added across the
load resistor. The voltage across the secondary terminals of the
transformer is 230V rms.

Determine the:
(a)DC output voltage
(b)Load current
(c)The charge supplied by the capacitor to the load
(d)Peak-to-peak ripple in the output voltage
(e)Percentage ripple
(f) The output ripple frequency.

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Solution
(a) DC output voltage
Vave Vm = 325.3 V

(b) The load current

IL = = = 6.51 A

(c) The charge supplied by the capacitor to the load

This current discharges the capacitor during the interval t 2 to t3. The time
period of the AC voltage = 20ms (for 50 Hz frequency).
Thus, the charge supplied by the capacitor to the load resistance during
this interval will be:
∆Q = ILT = 6.51 × 20 × 10-3 = 0.1302 C
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Solution
(d) Peak-to-peak ripple voltage
Vp-p = = = 13.02 V

(e) Percentage ripple

Percentage ripple = × 100% = × 100% = 4%

The larger the capacitor value, the smaller the ripple.

Notice that the ripple voltage is now only 4%, compared to 314% when the
capacitor is not used.

(f) The ripple frequency is same as before (50 Hz).

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2. Centre-Tapped Rectifier with Capacitor
filter
Similar to the half-wave rectifier, smoothing is performed by a large
value capacitor connected across the load resistance as shown below to
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act as a reservoir, supplying current to the output when the varying DC

voltage from the rectifier is falling.

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Output Waveform with Capacitor Filter
The diagram below shows the unsmoothed varying DC (thin line) and
the smoothed DC (thick line).
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The capacitor charges quickly near the peak of the varying DC, and then
discharges as it supplies current to the output.
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Output Waveform with Capacitor Filter
Note that smoothing significantly increases the average DC voltage to
almost the peak value.
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However, smoothing is not perfect due to the capacitor voltage falling a

little as it discharges, giving a small ripple voltage.
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Calculation of Capacitance Value
For many circuits, a ripple which is 10% of the supply voltage is
satisfactory and the equation below gives the required value for the
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smoothing capacitor.

In the full-wave circuit, the capacitor discharges for only a half-cycle

before being recharged.
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Hence the capacitance required is only half as much in the full-wave

circuit as for the half-wave circuit.
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C=

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3. Bridge Rectifier With Capacitor Filter
The voltage obtained across the load resistor of the full-wave bridge
rectifier described in the previous slides has a large amount of ripple.
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A capacitor filter may be added to smoothen the ripple in the output, as

shown below.
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 2. ZENER DIODE

“
A Zener diode is a special diode which operates during
the reverse biased mode for voltage regulation.

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The Zener Diode
A reverse biased diode passes very little current but will suffer
breakdown or damage if the reverse voltage applied across it is made
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too high resulting in Zener diodes or breakdown diodes.

Zener diodes are basically the same as the standard junction diode but
are specially made to have a low pre-determined reverse breakdown
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voltage, called the Zener voltage (VZ).

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The Zener Diode
In the forward direction, it behaves just like a normal signal diode
passing current.
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When the reverse voltage applied to it exceeds the selected reverse

breakdown voltage, a process called avalanche breakdown occurs in the
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depletion layer.

The current through the diode increases to the maximum circuit value,
which is usually limited by a series resistor.
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The Zener Diode
The point at which current flows can be very accurately controlled (to
less than 1% tolerance) in the doping stage of the diode construction
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giving it a specific Zener.

Breakdown voltage (Vz) ranging from a few volts up to a few hundred

volts.
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The Zener Diode
Zener Diodes are used in the reverse bias mode, i.e. the anode connects
to the negative supply and from its I-V characteristics curve below.
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The Zener diode has a region in its reverse bias characteristics of almost
a constant voltage regardless of the current flowing through the diode.
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The Zener Diode
This voltage across the diode (its Zener voltage, ) remains nearly
constant even with large changes in current through the diode caused
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by variations in the supply voltage or load.

This ability to control itself can be used to great effect to regulate or

stabilize a voltage source against supply or load variations.
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The diode will continue to regulate until the diode current falls below
the minimum value in the reverse breakdown region.
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Zener Diode as a Voltage Regulator
A voltage regulator is a circuit designed to ensure a constant, stable
voltage across a load.
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By connecting a simple Zener stabiliser circuit as shown below across

the output of the rectifier, a more stable reference voltage can be
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produced.

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Zener Diode as a Voltage Regulator
• The resistor is connected in series to limit the current flow to the diode.

The input voltage source, Vin is connected across the combination while
the stabilised output voltage Vout is taken from across the Zener diode.
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Zener Diode as a Voltage Regulator
The Zener diode is connected with its cathode terminal connected to the
positive rail of the DC supply so it is reverse biased and will be
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operating in its breakdown condition.

When no load resistance (RL ) is connected to the circuit, no load

current (IL = 0) is drawn and all the circuit current passes through the
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Zener diode which dissipates its maximum power.

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Zener Diode as a Voltage Regulator
Care must be taken when selecting the appropriate value of resistance
such that the Zener maximum power rating is not exceeded under this
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"no-load" condition.

There is a minimum Zener current for which the stabilization of the

voltage is effective and the Zener current must stay above this value
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when operating within its breakdown region at all times.

The upper limit of current is of course dependent upon the power rating
of the device.
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Example 1
A 5.0V stabilized power supply is required from a 12V DC input. The
maximum power rating of the Zener diode is 2W. Using the circuit below
calculate:
(a)The maximum current flowing in the Zener diode
(b)The value of the series resistor R.
(c)The load current IL if a load resistor of 1kΩ is connected across the
Zener diode.
(d)The total supply current IS

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Solution
(a) The maximum current flowing in the Zener diode
Izmax = = = 400mA

(b) The value of the series resistor R

R = = = 17.5 Ω

(c) The load current IL if a load resistor of 1kΩ is connected across the
Zener diode.
IL = = = 5mA

(d) The total supply current IS

Is = Iz + IL = 400mA + 5mA = 405mA
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Example 2
In the circuit below the 10V Zener diode can maintain regulation over a
range of
current values from 4mA to 40mA to.
Calculate the range of input voltage for which the diode can maintain the
regulated output.

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Solution
The range of input voltage for which the diode can maintain the regulated
output.
For the minimum input voltage
Iz = 4mA
VR = IzR = 4 × 10-3 × 1 × 103 = 4V
Vin = VR + Vz = 4V + 10V = 14V

For the maximum input voltage

Iz = 40mA
VR = IzR = 40 × 10-3 × 1 × 103 = 40V
Vin = VR + Vz = 40V + 10V = 50V
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Percentage Regulation
The regulation is a merit used to specify the performance of a voltage
regulator.
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• It can be in terms of input (line) or load regulation.

Line regulation
Line regulation specifies how much change occurs in the output for a given
change in the input voltage. It is typically defined as:

Line Regulation =

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Percentage Regulation
Load regulation
Load regulation specifies how much change occurs in the output over a
certain range of load current values, usually from minimum current (no
load) to maximum current (full load). It is normally calculated with the
formula:

Load Regulation = =

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Example 3
Assume a certain 7805 regulator has a measured no load output voltage of
5.18V and a full- load output of 5.15V. What is the load regulation
expressed in percentage?

Solution
Load Regulation = =

Load Regulation = × 100% = 0.58%

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 3. LIGHT EMITTING
DIODE
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A light-emitting diode is a semiconductor light source that
emits light when current flows through it.

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Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs)
LEDs are the most visible type of diode that emits a fairly narrow
bandwidth of either visible coloured light, invisible infra-red or laser
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type light when a forward current is passed through them.

When the diode is forward biased, electrons from the semiconductor’s

conduction band combine with holes from the valence band, releasing
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sufficient energy to produce photons of light.

Because of this thin layer, a reasonable number of these photons can

leave the junction and radiate away producing a coloured light output.
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Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs)
Normal diodes which are made for signal detection and power
rectification are generally made from either Germanium or Silicon
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semiconductor material.

LEDs are made from compound type semiconductor materials such as

Gallium Arsenide (GaAs), Gallium Phosphide (GaP), Gallium Arsenide
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Phosphide (GaAsP), Silicon Carbide (SiC) or Gallium Indium Nitride

(GaInN).

The exact choice of the semiconductor material used will determine the
overall wavelength of the photon light emissions and therefore the
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resulting colour of the light emitted

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How LEDs work?
The light-emitting section of an LED is made by joining n-type and p-
type semiconductors together to form a p-n junction.
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When the p-n junction is forward-biased, electrons in the n side are

excited across the p-n junction and into the p side, where they combine
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with holes.

As the LED is to be connected in a forward bias condition across a

power supply, it should be current limited using a series resistor to
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protect it from excessive current flow.

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How LEDs work?
• As the electrons combine with the holes, photons are emitted.

The p-n junction section of an LED is encased in an epoxy shell that is

doped with light scattering particles to diffuse light and make the LED
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appear brighter.

Often a reflector placed beneath the semiconductor is used to direct the

light upward.
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How LEDs work?
From the table below we can see that each LED has its own forward
voltage drop across the PN-junction.
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How LEDs work?
This parameter, which is determined by the semiconductor material
used, is the forward voltage drop for a given amount of forward
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conduction current, typically for a forward current of 20mA.

In most cases LEDs are operated from a low voltage DC supply, with a
series resistor to limit the forward current to a suitable value from say
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5mA for a simple LED indicator to 30mA or more where a high

brightness light output is needed.

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IV Characteristics of LEDs

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Application of LEDs
LEDs are commonly used for indicator lamps and readout displays on a
wide variety of devices.
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A common type of display using LEDs is a 7-segment display. A 7-

segment LED display provides a very convenient way of displaying
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information or digital data in the form of Numbers, Letters or even

Alpha-numerical characters.

As the name suggests, the means of display consists of 7 individual LEDs

(the segments), within one single display package.
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Application of LEDs

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Application of LEDs
In order to produce the required numbers or characters from 0 to 9 and
A to F respectively, the correct combination of LED segments need to be
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illuminated on the display.

A standard 7-segment LED display generally has 8 input connections,

one for each LED segment and one that acts as a common terminal or
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connection for all the internal segments.

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Photodiodes
The photodiode is a junction device that operates in reverse bias as
shown in figure.
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The photodiode has a small transparent window that allows light to

strike the p-n junction. Typical photodiodes are shown the figure below
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Photodiodes
In the photodiode, the reverse current increases with the light intensity
at the exposed junction.
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When there is no incident light, the reverse current, 𝐼 λ is almost

negligible and is called dark current.
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An increase in the amount of light intensity, expressed as irradiance

(mW/cm2), produces an increase in the reverse current as shown by the
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graph in figure.

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Reverse Current - Irradiance Curve

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Applications of Photodiodes
• An application of photodiode is depicted in figure below.

Here, a beam of light continuously passes across a conveyor belt and

into a transparent window behind which is a photodiode circuit.
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When the light beam is interrupted by an object passing by on the

conveyor belt, the sudden reduction in the diode current activates a
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control circuit that advances a counter by one.

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Applications of Photodiodes
The total count of object that has passed that point is displayed by the
counter.
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This basic concept can be extended and used for production control,
shipping, and monitoring of activity on production lines.
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Thanks!
Any questions?

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