Objectives of the course

• To understand the requirements of

Proper poultry management practices
and how they can be met
• Poultry
• Management requirements
• Proper management practices
 .
• MBAGA S.H
AS 304 Course outline

1. Introduction
2. The poultry industry in Tanzania
3. Systems of Poultry Management
4. Poultry Housing and Equipment
5. Incubation and Hatchery Management
6. Management of Poultry at Different stages
7. Poultry Nutrition
8. Poultry Biosecurity
Introduction

Chicken, turkey, ducks and goose are all types of

birds called poultry.

They are reared for meat and eggs.

 Classification of Poultry
• Phasiniadae are pheasant type birds that
include:-
• Chickens (Domestic fowl- Gallus gallus)
• Turkeys (Meleagris galloparo)
• Japanese quail (Cortunix cortunix)
• Guinea fowl (Numida spp.)
• Pigeons (Columbia livia)
• Ostrich (Struthio spp.)
• Pea fowl (Pavo spp.).
 Classification continue
• Anatidae family are waterfowl that
include
– Common duck (Anas platyrhynchos)
– Muscovy duck (Cairina moschata)
– Geese (Anser anser).
 Classification of chickens cont
• The Red jungle fowl (Gallus gallus or Gallus
bankiva) is the main ancestor of the domestic
chicken
• A breed means a group of birds which possesses a
given set of physical features, such as body shape,
skin color, and number of toes.

• Differences among breeds within a class are

normally observed with respect to body size, shape,
skin color etc.
• But within a breed birds are fairly identical although
variations can be observed in feather color, pattern
and comb type
 Classification of chickens cont
• A variety is a subdivision of the breed.
– Distinguishable features of a variety are comb
type (single, rose or pea combed).
– Plumage type and feather pattern.

• A strain is a cross that has been bred and developed

by a person or organization to possess certain
desirable characteristics

• Many commercial strains exist, such as Babcock,

DeKalb, Hyline, and Shaver, have been bred for
specific purposes.
 Dual Purpose breeds
• Used to produce both meat and eggs e.g. Sasso,
Kuroiler, Rhode Island Reds or Plymouth Rock

• Dual purpose breeds may have a role to play where

it is not possible to get better breeds or conditions
not ideal or feed is not of the best quality
•
 Hybrids
• Hybrids (cross-breeds) selected for either meat or egg
production (not both) are used are used for commercial
production.
Crossing utilize Hybrid vigour/heterosis
 The Poultry Industry
The current population of chickens is estimated
at 72 million, of which 40 million are
indigenous chicken and the remaining 32
million are exotic poultry, which include
-24 million broilers and 8 million layers.
-Among the existing 4.7 million agricultural
households in Tanzania, 3.7 million households
keep chickens.
 Challenges
Commercialisation of the poultry sector is
lagging behind due to:
•unorganised markets for poultry and poultry
products
•Unreliable supply of day-old chicks (DOCs)
•Lack of reliable supply of quality poultry feeds
•High veterinary and poultry feed costs and lack
of poultry processing industries.
 Challenges….
The poultry sector is also suffering from chaotic and
unorganised distribution system and lack of third-
party logistics cold chain for poultry and poultry
products’ movements from farm to consumers

Due to underdeveloped production (hatchery

technologies) and processing equipment and
technologies Tanzania has remained net importer
of parent stock and fertilised eggs and significant
volume of processed poultry products.
 Challenges….
Tanzania also imports soymeal and other key
additives for poultry feed, poultry production
and processing equipment, and veterinary
products.
Tanzania imports parent stock and fertilised
eggs mainly from the Netherlands, Kenya,
France, Zambia, Great Britain, and India.
Import processed poultry products from mainly
from the USA, Brazil, the UAE, and Russia.
 Opportunities
• The Tanzania poultry sector is ripe for
investment with opportunities ranging from
input supply all the way across the value chain
to retailing and exporting.
• The poultry industry in Tanzania has
continued to record steady growth whereby
during the year 2013 about 61 million day-old-
chicks (DOC) were produced and in the year
2014 about 63.1 million DOCs were produced
 Opotunities…
• The production of DOC is likely to increase as
time goes by, due to new investments in
poultry breeding farms and hatcheries.
Tanzania has steadily entered the export
market for DOCs.
• Currently thousand of flock owners have
adopted poultry farming as an economic unit,
a means of livelihood and a source of income
 Emerging poultry associations

• Tanzania Smallholder Poultry Forum

• Tanzania Animal Feed Manufacturers
Association(TAFMA)
• TanzaniaTanzania Layer Farmers Association(TALFA)
• Ushirika wa Wafugaji Kuku
Morogoro(UWAFUKUMO)
• Umoja wa Wafugaji wa Kuku Dar es Salaam)
• African Women in Agribusiness Network Company
Ltd(AWAN)
 Emerging poultry associations
• Envisions African women in agribusinesses Arusha Poultry
Keepers Association(APOKA) Tanzania Broiler Farmers
Association(TABROFA)
• Tanzania Veterinary Paraprofessionals Association(TAVEPA)
• Commercial Poultry Association(TCPA)Mwanza
Multipurpose Cooperative Society Tanzania Poultry
Breeders Association(TPBA) etc etc
• Such association provide opportunities to resolve
challenges facing the industry sector-wise including
lobbying with the Gov
•
•
 POULTRY MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS
• Poultry production systems in the tropics can be
divided into two distinct systems,
– differentiated on the basis of flock sizes and
input-output relationships

Intensive large-scale systems with high

purchased-inputs and high risk

Traditional small-scale systems with low

purchased-inputs and low risk
 .
In between these systems there is the semi
intensive system/back-yard system

• Large-scale intensive production systems,

especially those producing broilers and eggs,
are found throughout the tropics; but they
represent only a small portion of the total
animal industry in most areas.
 Intensive systems
• These systems are used by medium to large-scale
commercial enterprises.

• Birds are fully confined either in houses or cages.

• Capital outlay is higher and the birds are totally

dependent on their owners for all their
requirements; production however is higher.

• Intensive systems of rearing indigenous chickens

commercially is uncommon
 Intensive system…..
• The intensive system is based on specialized
breeds,
– < 30 % of total poultry population in Africa.

• Mainly in urban areas, where there are markets

for eggs and chicken meat.

• Producers use
– standard practices,
– breeds of choice depending on production
objectives, appropriate housing,
– Feeding , health and disease control program.
 Intensive cont:
• Feed resource is a major input in the intensive
systems, accounting for over 60% of total
production costs.

• Intensive broiler and egg production systems:

utilizes from three to four grams of feed protein
for every gram of food protein produced.

• In addition it also requires

– artificial incubation, brooding, artificial light,
confinement buildings, balanced feeds,
mechanized equipment and professional
supervision.
Deep litter •Birds are fully confined within a house 3 to 4 birds/m²) but can move around freely.
system: •The floor is covered with a deep litter (5 to 10 cm deep layer) of grain husks (maize
or rice), straw, wood shavings or a similarly absorbent, non-toxic material.
•Suitable for commercial breeds of egg or meat producing poultry (layers, breeder
flocks and broilers).

Slatted floor • Wire or wooden slatted floors are used instead of deep litter, which allow stocking
system: rates to be increased to five birds/m² of floor space
• Birds have reduced contact with faeces and are allowed some freedom of
movement.
•Faeces can be collected from below the slatted floor and used as fertilizer.

Battery cage •Usually used for laying birds, which are kept throughout their productive life in
system: small cages.
•High initial capital investment, and the system is mostly confined to large-scale
commercial egg layer operations.

24
Intensive system (deep litter)
Intensive system (Battery cage)
Intensive Free range
 Extensive system

• Scavenging is the main feeding system.

• Chickens cannot be guaranteed a balanced diet

from scavenging.
– To achieve a well-balanced diet, they are
sometimes supplemented with feeds.
– Characterised by high mortality
– Low-input low -output system
Extensive system
 Characteristics of poultry management systems
Production system No of eggs No of eggs for Suitable
per hen/year consumption & breeds
sale
Scavenging (free-range) 20-30 0 local breeds

Improved scavenging 40-60 10-20 local breeds

and health care

Semi-intensive 100 30-50 hybrids or

local
Intensive (deep litter) 160-180 50-60 hybrids

Intensive (cages) 250-300 250-300 hybrids

 Traditional free range Improved free range Small scale confined
Type (Low input/low output) Low input/medium output High input/high output

Birds Indigenous Indigenous/crosses Hybrids

Number 1 -10 5 -50 50 -2000
Area Rural Rural/peri-urban Peri urban/urban
Ownership Women/children Women/children/family Any
Reason Home consumption/sale Home consumption/sale at Sold to traders/
at home home/local markets markets/restaurants

Income Small cash income Family income Business income

Social
Input Low Micro credit Loans
Disease control
Mortality high Moderate Low
Feeds and Scavenging Supplements Own or commercial
Feeding

Housing Poor Modest Good

Egg 30-50 50-150 250-300
prodn/hen/year

Growth rate 5-10/day 10-20 g/day 50-55 g/day

Broodiness Long periods Short periods Limited
Management of Birds Includes Providing
 Poultry Housing
• To protect birds from severe weather, direct
sun rays and rain.

• To minimize effect of dampness.

• To provide safety from predators.

• To apply appropriate management practices

• To provide suitable atmosphere for

expression of full genetic potential.
 Type of poultry houses

i) Simple, modest, expensive

Depending on weather we can have
 Open side house
(Conventional Broiler House-Deep
litter rearing

Controlled Environment (non-

conventional-closed)
Type of poultry houses
 Housing
• Positioning of the house is an important
consideration in order
– to protect poultry from wind and rain storms
– to prevent direct sunlight from entering the house
and stressing the birds
– to have good drainage around the house to protect
it from flooding
– to avail of the prevailing wind to cool the house in a
warm climate
 .
• The house should have:
a roof with a steep slope to allow rainwater to
run off, and have a good overhang
 The house should have high roof so that a
person can stand upright
Cement floor- to allow thorough cleaning
Plastered walls- reduce mites and fleas
Walls can be made of bricks, timber, iron sheet
Large windows for ventilation (tropics)
 Orientation and roof
• Poultry house should be located in such a way that
the long axis is in E-W direction. Orientation should
be such that afternoon sunshine falls on the small
narrow end of the house (E-W).
• Doing so prevent direct sunshine on the birds and
increase in temperature in the house
• A naturally ventilated house should be placed in
such a way it takes advantage of natural air
movements

40
 Dimension and materials of the house
• Width of the house: from front to back for open
sided should be about 10 m. Very wide houses do
not provide adequate ventilation

• Height: Should have a stud of about 2.4 m long

([Link] from foundation to the roofline). In
high temp areas it can be up to 3 m
• Length: Can be any convenient but should not
exceed 12 m.

• The distance between houses should be as far as

possible but certainly not less than 10 -12 meters.
41
 Space Requirements, or Density of Birds per
Unit Area
• This is the most important basic principle in
housing, as the space available determines the
number and type of poultry that can be kept.

• Birds need adequate space for movement and

exercise as well as areas to nest and roost.

• Space requirements vary with

– the species, type or breed of birds that are
raised, as well as the type of production system
used. 42
 Spacing
• Do not overcrowd the chickens and floor space
should be as follows:
– Chickens 0-6 weeks old: 10-12 birds/m2. Floor size 5m x
2m /100 birds
– Pullets to 16 weeks old: 5-7 birds/m2 Floor size 2m x
2m / 25 birds
– Laying hens: 5 birds/m2. Floor size 5m x 2m / 25 hens
– Hens in layer cages, floor space may be 12-15 birds/ m2
– Cage size for 3 hens: 40 cm long x 30 cm wide x 45 cm
high, for 5 hens: 50 cm long x 30 cm wide x 45 cm high
 Minimum Requirement of Chickens for floor and perch space

Chicken Floor Space Floor Perch Space

types (birds/m²) Space (per bird)
(ft²/ bird)

Layer 3 3.6 25 cm (10 in)

Dual 4 2.7 20 cm (8 in)

Purpose
4-5 2.1-2.7 15-20 cm (6-8
Meat
in)
44
 STRESSORS Mold &
NH3/H2S
Dust Mycotoxins
Heat Cold Poor
Vaccination Ventilation
Parasites

Rough
Loud Noises
Handling
Bacteria
Viruses
Poor
Humidity Protozoa
Sanitation
Beak
Weighing Dirty Water Trimming
Pecking
Order Nutritional
Molting
Crowding Deficiencies
Feed Poor Litter
Restriction Quality
 Temperature
Birds like all other warm-blooded animals produce
heat, moisture and CO2 as by products of their
biological activity so as to maintain body temp

The temperature of an adult bird 41.1oC

The chick is unable to maintain its body temperature

for the first weeks after hatching (why?)
- Under developed feather
- - Under developed heat generation mechanism
46
 Heat stress
• Hot weather has a severe impact on poultry
performance

• Heat stress begins when the ambient temperature

is above 26.7oC and is readily apparent above
29.4oC.

• The effects of heat stress include:

– a progressive reduction in feed intake
– an increase in water consumption in an attempt to
lower temperature
– a progressive reduction in growth rate, poor egg shell
– disturbances in reproduction (lower egg weight, smaller
chicks, reduced sperm concentration and an increased
level of abnormal sperm in cocks).
47
 Heat stress…..
• Poultry are not well adapted to high, ambient
temperatures because they lack sweat glands

• Only the head appendages (e.g. comb) are

rich in blood vessels and able to allow direct
loss of heat.

48
 Average body temperature as influenced by age.

Age of Average Body Temperature

chicks
1 day 39.7 0C
2 days 40.1 0C
4 days 41.0 0C
5 days 41.4 0C
10 days 41.4 0C
49
 Figure: Energy and Heat Flow in Poultry
Convection and radiant heat

Evaporation
Radiant heat
heat loss from
respiration

Energy in feed

Water intake
Growth (temperature
Activity important)
Metabolic
heat

Conduction heat loss

Excreta heat to litter and concrete
and energy
(loss of bicarbonate
and potassium
 Heat Stress & Ambient Temperature

Temperature Observed condition

Thermal neutral zone. The temperature range in which the bird does not need to alter
12.8o to 18.3oC
its basic metabolic rate or behaviour to maintain its body temperature.
18.3o to 23.9oC Ideal temperature range.
A slight reduction in feed consumption can be expected, but if nutrient intake is
23.9o to 29.4oC adequate, production efficiency is good. Egg size may be reduced and shell quality
may suffer as temperatures reach the top of this range.
Feed consumption falls further. Weight gains are lower. Egg size and shell quality
29.4o to 32.2oC deteriorate. Egg production usually suffers. Cooling procedures should be started
before this temperature range is reached.
Feed consumption continues to drop. There is some danger of heat prostration
32.2o to 35.0oC among layers, especially the heavier birds and those in full production. At these
temperatures, cooling procedures must be carried out.

Heat prostration is probable. Emergency measures may be needed. Egg production

35.0o to 37.8oC
and feed consumption are severely reduced. Water consumption is very high.

Emergency measures are needed to cool birds. Survival is the concern at these
Over 37.8oF
temperatures.
51
 Ventilation
• Ventilation is movement of air within the poultry
house

• Ample air movement without a draft is essential.

• Fresh air brings in oxygen whilst removing excess

moisture, ammonia or carbon dioxide

• Dampness and ammonia build-up are a sign that

there is not enough ventilation.

• Failure to insulate or ventilate properly causes

moisture to accumulate on the walls 52
 Moisture in the poultry house
• It constitutes one of the greatest problem in mgt
– Sources of moisture include respired air, in feacal
material and spilled water
• Fresh feacal material contains about 75 –80% water
but amount in litter is variable being as low 5-10%
under dry conditions and 70-80% when litter is damp

– Optimum for growing is between 20 and 40%, older

birds 10 and 30%.

– When RH of the air in the house is about 50% moisture

of litter material will be around 25%
53
 Common Gas Levels in Poultry Houses
• .
Gas Symbol Lethal Desirable

Carbon Dioxide CO2 Above 30% Below 1%

Methane CH4 Above 5% Below 1%

Ammonia NH3 Above Below

500ppm 40ppm
Hydrogen Sulfide H2 S Above Below
500ppm 40ppm 54
 LIGHT
• Lighting is an essential component of
successful commercial poultry production

• Light enables the bird to move, see and drink

• In laying birds (including breeders) light is

significant in the development and functioning
of the bird’s reproductive system

• High intensity light leads to increased activity,

cannibalism and piling 55
 Lighting systems
• Light supplied by natural sunshine followed by
darkness is the most inferior particularly for
broilers

• Lighting systems include

– Intermittent lighting
– Continuous

• N.B: Avoid high light intensities since these

reduce feed efficiency
56
 Effects of light on Layers/broiler
• Birds reared under increased day-light
produce more eggs due to increase of FSH
and LH from pituitary gland.
• BLUE light have stress-relieving and growth
promoting properties in chicken
• RED light has promotional effect on egg
production
• For broiler- Colder-coloured light promote
growth & breast muscle yield
57
 Summary of lighting programmes

Bird type Lighting hours

Young chickens (1-5 days) 24 hours

Young chickens (6-10 days) 23 hours

Pullets 15 hours
Layers 15 hours
Broilers 23 hours

Ducks and geese 15 hours

Pheasant breeders 15 hours
 Poultry nutrition

 Feed accounts for over 70% of the cost of

producing poultry meat and over 60% of egg
production costs.

 The poultry digestive system is relatively

simple and short, but extremely efficient.
 Food Conversion
 Poultry are extremely efficient feed converters

 There have been huge advances made

through selective breeding

• Example:
- Broiler food conversion is 1.7 (it takes 1.7kgs
of feed to put on 1kg of body weight gain)
Structure of digestive tract
 Nutrient Requirements of Poultry

 Housed livestock are entirely dependent on the

compounded feed containing the correct
amounts & proportions of nutrients

 They have no access to herbage or soil, or

sunlight
 Why include different ingredients?
• No single feed can supply all nutrients in adequate
amount needed by the bird
• Some feed contain anti-nutritional factors e.g.
gossypol in cotton seed cake- hence limit its
inclusion
• Some feed e.g Fish meal – too much impact fishy
smell in meat
• Some (with high fat) affect storage and processing
• Cost- feed has to be affordable- least cost
formulation. Hence use of cheap feed e.g. BSF
Nutrient Requirements of Poultry: ENERGY

Energy is assessed using the Metabolisable Energy

(ME) system
– Energy is first used for maintenance of normal
body functions
– Amounts above this are used for production, i.e.
eggs or growth
– Excessive energy supply leads to undesirable fat
deposition
– ME content of rations generally in the range 11-
13 MJ/ME/kg
 Nutrient Requirements of Poultry: PROTEIN

 Protein is required for body development in growing

birds, and a good proportion is also required by layers
as eggs contain 13-14% protein

 Protein Quality
– 2 most important amino acids are lysine &
methionine (L&M).
– Cereals (wheat, maize) are a poor source of the
correct amino acids
– Soya bean is the best vegetable protein source
(although poor for meth, so cannot be used as the
only source)
 PROTEIN…………..

Animal protein (fishmeal) is the richest

source of Lysine &Methionine
Use of fish meal is on the decline, Thus….
– Synthetic amino acids are added to feeds
to improve protein quality
– Sunflower meal is high in methionine (but
high fibre content…. limits its use)
 Nutrient Requirements of Poultry
VITAMINS
Vitamin Function Source

A Growth, resistance to disease Green veg, maize, fish liver oil,

synthetic

D Utilises Ca & P properly – vital Sunlight, fish liver oil,

(in the form of D3 ) for bone and egg shell synthetic

E Deficiency affects nervous Cereals, Will be destroyed by

system, also for hatching eggs bad storage or overheating

K Blood clotting (deficiency = Green foods, Lucerne meal,

haemorrhaging synthetic

B group (incl. Biotin, Choline & Optimum growth, metabolism Cereals, synthetic
folic Acid) of carbohydrates, feathering,
hatchability, red blood cells,
biotin prevents fatty liver
syndrome.
 MINERALS Requirements
 Calcium and phosphorus (macro)
– Necessary for bone formation (assoc. with leg weakness)
and egg shell
– Calcium to phosphorus ratio should be 2:1
– Animal derivatives are the richest in calcium when
compared to plant sources, although all foods have
some calcium content
– Phosphorus in cereals may be in a form that is poorly
absorbed, so supplements may be needed
– Absorption of Ca & P requires vitamin D3 and manganese
– Di-calcium phosphate or fishmeal can be added to the
diet as an extra source
 Mineral Requirements …..
MINERAL FUNCTIONS

Manganese Involved with calcium metabolism

Good hatchability of eggs
Shell strength
To promote bone formation
Source – Wheat, Limestone and manganese
sulphate
Iron, Copper and Cobalt Essential for formation of haemoglobin

Iodine Associated with poor hatchability

Source – usual feeds but especially fishmeal

Common salt (sodium chloride) Essential for protein digestion

Excess salt causes thirst and wet droppings
(max 0.5% in diet)
Excess or deficiency seriously affects
 Water
Access to fresh clean water at all times is absolutely essential
in intensive livestock production systems
• poultry must have a constant water supply to
maintain efficient production
• Young chicks or birds in hot weather can die in only a
few hours if water is absent

Water consumption of the flock should be monitored and

recorded daily

A change in water consumption is a crucial early indicator of

a health problem, or heat stress
 Enzymes in poultry feeds
 Enzyme are chemical or catalyst released by cells to speed
up specific chemical reaction
 Incorporated into poultry diets for the following reasons:
 Increase the nutritional value of feed ingredients
 Reduce feed costs
 Improve animal performance
 Enzymes complement the bird’s own digestive enzymes
NB: Heat conditioning during pelleting damages enzymes,
so must be added afterwards
– Overall Benefits improve efficiency of feed utilization
 .
• Classes of enzymes:
Phytases: release some of non- digestibale
phosphorous and other nutrients found in feeds
ingredients
Carbohydrases: increase amount of energy available
from feeds ingredients (e.g. Amylases, Xylanase)
Proteases: Protein digesting enzyme. Break down
storage proteins binding starch within feeds. Also
effective in releasing anti-nutritional factors in
feeds such as Soybean
 Factors affecting feed intake

Categorized into:

[Link] factor
[Link] factor
[Link] factors
 Feed factors
The energy concentration: Birds eat to satisfy energy
requirement and adjust their intakes to provide a
constant energy intake.

Layers have a specific appetite for calcium

Poultry seem to have the ability to select for a
balanced diet (i.e. meet their energy and protein
requirements) when offered a range of feeds
Likewise, birds learn food preferences from previous
experiences
 Feed factors…
• Palatability and anti-nutritional factors (e.g. raw
moringa leaves, mycotoxins/mould)

• Digestibility- fast digestible increase intake

• Physical form of food: Pellet vs mash, fine particles

in the feed- eat more Pellets and mash than fine
grounded feeds
 Feed factors…
Water availability
Fibre content- High fibre lower intake
Calcium level for Layers- for egg production
 Animal Factors
Physiological status of the bird. E.g. sick vs
health, laying vs non laying, growth stage

Production rate: fast growth vs slow, high laying

rate vs low
Age of bird : old vs young

Breed: Light vs. heavy breeds

Type: Layers vs broilers
 Environmental Factors…
High temperature/ high humidity – lead to reduction
in feed intake

Stocking density: High density reduce intake- due to

competition

Equipment
– feed space per bird, number and arrangements
– trough position - base height level with bird’s back
 General composition of poultry diets
 Cereals usually make up 50-75% of a poultry diet

 Cereals supply a high proportion of starch (the lowest cost

form of dietary energy)
 Cereals may supply up to 50% of the protein required,
however the quality is poorer (deficient in essential amino
acids), so oilseed meals (e.g. soya-bean ≈ 50%CP) and
fishmeal are used as protein concentrates
 Max inclusion rate for fat (source of energy) is 6%
– Above this level feed is sticky (machinery can’t work
with it) and it can be difficult to form hard pellets
 Mycotoxins
as contaminants of feed
Mycotoxins are the toxic metabolites of fungi

 Over 200 types are known

 Responsible for significant financial loss to the poultry

industry
– decreased growth rate, food conversion efficiency,
livability, reproductive potential
– Feed importers do test deliveries for presence of mould
regularly
 Brooding management
What is brooding?
The management with due care of baby chicks till
two weeks in broilers and 6 to 8 weeks in egg type
birds is known as brooding.

What is Brooder?
The device or equipment used for providing artificial
heat to baby chicks is known as brooder.
 Methods of brooding
1. Natural method of brooding
2. Artificial method of brooding
Cold room brooding/spot brooding (heating only under
the canopy)
Hot room brooding (central heating- whole house)
Types of brooder (source of heat)
 Battery brooder
 Gas
 Infra red
 Electrical
 Charcoal
Natural Brooding
Electrical brooding/cold room brooding
Infra Red bulbs Gas brooder

Hot room brooding

 Cont…
Location of brooder house
• Distance between brooder house and other poultry house
should not be less than 100 meters.
Preparation of brooder house
• Cleaning and washing of brooder house
• Cleaning and washing of equipments
• Seal cracks and crevices
• White wash
• Fumigation
• Arrangements of chick guards
• Arrangements of litter
• Arrangement of hover
• Paper arrangements for first 3 days
Basic requirements during brooding
1. Temperature

Age in weeks Temperature under

hover
First week 350C
Second week 320C
Third week 290C
Fourth week 260C
Fifth week 230C
 Cont..
[Link] : enough ventilation to keep litter dry
3. Humidity : Brooder house humidity ranges from 50 to 60 %
4. Space requirement :
With electric hovers 10 sq. inch or 65.5 cm2 per chick is
the minimum requirement at the starting of brooding
with gradual increase as per age. Up to the age of 8
weeks 460 sq. cm per chick is sufficient.
A hover having 1.8 diameters can accommodate 500 chicks.
But 200-250 chicks per brooder is advised for better
management.
 Feeding

• For the first 3 or 4 days feed is provided in flat

type feeder lids or papers. These have to be
removed gradually taking about a week while
introducing regular feeders. The chicks should
be given pre-starter in case of broilers and
chick starter in case of layers.

• Feeder space requirements:

Up to 2 weeks – 2.5 cm/chick
2 to 8 weeks – 4 to 5 cm/chick
3 hanging feeders/100 chicks .
90
Brooding cont.
• Use chick
lid boxes
and flat
feeders
during the
first few
week days
 Requirements of chicks during brooding
• Chicks are easily stressed during 1st 2 wks due to
many reasons
• Observe chicks regularly
• Envn conditions: refer envn requirements
• Feeding
– Chicks should be fed with high energy protein diet at least 21% CP
for the 1st weeks and reduce thereafter. The diet up to 8 weeks
should contain at least 5 – 7 % animal protein supplements, Ca
(1%); P (0.6%).
– They require large amount of B vitamins
– Chicks should have access to feed and water at all times

92
 Other operations
• Culling: Removal of poorly developed birds

• Diseases and Parasites Control

– Continue the vaccination programmes
– Use of prophylactics and litter management
• Continue using coccidiostats in feed or water
• Litter should contain at least 20 to 30% moisture
– Leads to better feathering, growth rate, feed conversion
– Reduce coccidiosis problems
– Ammonia in the house is reduced
• Deworming
93
 Management at different stages:
growing and laying

• Growers (6-8 to 18th week of age)

94
– Restricted feeding medium energy and protein

– Debeaking and culling

– Continue vaccinations and deworming as

required
 Growing management
Feeding must stimulate early appetite so as to have optimum
BW and body reserves at maturity

•Apart from nutrition BW can be influenced by

– Stocking density
– Temperature
– Feather cover
•Energy intake limits to growth rate more than protein

•Pullets eat about 5-7 kg up to 18 weeks of age

•Quality/quantity of feeding affects onset of sexual maturity

 Feeding birds
Use high dense diets CP (16-18%) and energy 2600-
2800 kcal/kg

High energy intake lead to less nutrients intake, (its

critical at high temp)

Failure to reach target wt can be due to

Suboptimal nutrition
Heat stress
Diseases
 Manipulation of body wt at sexual maturity
 Body size has an effect on egg size and intake and
it is easier to manipulate

 Depending on the market/price large or small

eggs may be uneconomical

 Light stimulation can be done earlier depending

on the ‘ideal weight’
 Early maturity is not a problem for flocks that
have ideal body weight and condition
 However early maturity and light stimulation may
lead to small eggs and prolapse if the bird is small
Effect of body wt on egg size

18 wk wt (g) Early egg wt (g)

1100 46.9

1200 48.4

1280 48.8

1380 49.7
 Layers (19th week of age to end
of laying period
• Observe strict management
practices such as
feeding (optimum Ca and
protein),
lighting,
space
egg collection
99
 Laying management
The housing and management of layer hens can
be carried out using one of two methods
caged layer production
floor production (deep litter)

Birds are moved to laying house before onset of

egg prodn or sometimes at 5% egg prodn

100
 Laying management…

The laying cycle of a chicken flock usually covers

a span of about 12 to 14 months.

Egg production begins at about 18-22 weeks of

age, depending on the breed and season.

Flock production rises sharply and reaches a peak

of about 85 - 90%, 6-8 weeks later.

101
 Stocking rate
The optimum bird density bird/m2 depends on
breed, management conditions and climate
Cages
Increases production output/unit area
Two birds per width of 22.5 – 25 cm (439-
488cm2/hen) or 3 birds per 30cm
(390cm2/hen)
One nest 36 cm wide, 30 cm high, and 41 cm
deep is needed for each four hens
High density increases temp/affect envn
conditions 102
 Stocking rate…..
Floor
The floor production method is designed for either
egg-type or broiler-type birds kept for fertile or
infertile eggs

6 birds/m2 for light birds or 5.4 birds/m2 for

heavy birds

Floor Space: At least 0.14 m2 per bird.

Litter: Keep 7.5 cm to 15 cm deep.

103
 Distribution of egg laying during the day

Hours after % of daily total

bright light egg
begins
1 Few
2-3 40
4-5 30
6-7 20
8-9 10
10-11104 Few
 Patterns of egg production
Egg production increases rapidly after 5%
production until it reaches a peak 8-9 weeks later

It is influenced by:

Management
Body wt of pullets

105
 Patterns of egg production
Peak production is abrupt with uniform flock because most
of the hens will be at a similar stage of development.

Lower or poor uniformity in the flock results into reduced

egg production throughout the entire laying period.

Variability in a flock uniformity can be caused by feeder

space, nutrient deficiency, lighting programmes etc.

Descending curve
 In a normal production curve the percentage egg
production show an equal drop after the peak has been
reached
 Egg production curve

107
 Egg production pattern
Age of flock (in % of flock laying No. of birds laying No. of eggs
weeks) produced per week
21 5 5 20
22 10 10 40
23 18 18 72
24 34 34 136
25 52 52 208
26 65 65 260
27 74 74 296
28 84 84 336
29 88 88 352
30 92 92 368
31 94 94 376
32 - 39 88 88 352
40 - 47 83 83 332
48 - 59 77 77 308
60 - 64 73 73 292
108
65 - 70 70 70 280
 Culling

• Culling hens refers to the identification and

removal of the non-laying or low producing
hens from a flock.
• Removing the inferior birds reduces the cost
of producing eggs, incidence of disease, and
increases the available space for more
productive hens.
• General Condition
• Body Characteristics 109
 Culling

Poor layer Good layer

110
 Characteristics Indicating Ability to Lay

Character Layer Non-Layer

Large, bright red,
Comb and Wattles Small, dull, shrivelled
glossy

Eye Bright, prominent Dull, sunken

Eye ring Bleached Yellow tinted

Beak Bleached Yellow

Abdomen Deep, soft, pliable Shallow, tough, tight

Pubic bones Flexible, wide apart Stiff, close together

Vent Large, moist, bleached Small, dry, puckered, yellow

 Shell defects
Gross cracks Hairline cracks

Pinholes Body-checked eggs


 Shell defects cont.

• Mottled or glassy shells Cage marks

• Fly marks Stained eggs

 Shell defects

Sandpaper or rough shells Thin-shelled eggs and shell-less eggs

Flat-sided eggs Misshapen eggs

 Meat spots
Blood spots

Watery whites Pale yolks Discoloured

whites
 Production planning

Layer 0 11 21 31 41 51 61 71 81
batch

(......................... time in weeks..........................)

1st Born Lay

layers

2nd Born Lay

layers

3rd Born Lay

layers
 Problems encountered during the laying period
•Mortality: Mortality rates of between 0.5 to over 2% per
month are not uncommon
•Noninfectious causes: Broodiness is often a problem in floor
production housing
•Aging Hens and Bare Backs
•Poor Feathering
•Pecking and Cannibalism
•Inadequate feed and water
•Bright lighting increases bird activity and cannibalism.
•High house temperatures aggravate birds and make them
more irritable
•Deficiencies of nutrients like methionine and salt will
increase a craving for feathers and blood 117
•Drop in Bodyweights and Egg Production
During Peak Production

•Cage Layer Fatigue

•Egg eating
 Breeders Management
• Breeding hens should be fed complete and well balanced
ration

• Deficiency in minerals, protein and vitamins normally lowers

hatchability, result in weak or unthrifty chicks.

• The diet should contain at least 7 – 10 percent animal protein

• The diet should also contain adequate amounts of Ca and

about 30 mg of manganese per kg feed

• Vitamins are the most important nutrient factors affecting

hatchability. Ample supply of vitamins A, D, riboflavin and
folic acid are essential
• Green materials increase hatchability 119
 Breeding cont:

• Good breeding cocks are recommended: one

cock for 15 –20 hens (egg type) and 15 – 20 hens
(general purpose)

• Fertile eggs can be collected 24 hrs after the cock

has been placed in the pen, but maximum fertility
occurs 7 – 10 days

• Medium sized eggs are recommended 55 gm

(avoid very small and large eggs)

• Eggs should be stored at a temperature of

between 50 – 55oF for a week 120
 Incubation
• Incubation is the management of fertilized eggs to
ensure normal development of embryo into normal
chick
• Incubation can be achieved
– naturally (when the hen sits on the eggs for a period of time
and keeps the eggs warm until hatching)
– artificially by using machines known as incubators which
provide the necessary heat until hatching.
• The essential requirements of incubation include
– humidity
– turning of the eggs
– temperature
 Essential requirement of artificial incubation
• Artificial incubation
• Artificial incubation is carried out with incubator using fuels such as
kerosene, gas, coal etc.
• 1) Adequate ventilation-
– there should be sufficient oxygen to supply the respiratory need of the
embryo
– carbon dioxide resulting from embryonic metabolism should not be allowed
to accumulate.
• 2) Relative humidity of 60-65% should be provided to prevent excessive
water loss by the egg.
• 3) Adequate temperature should be provided to ensure that life within the
egg is maintained at the optimum level. The temperature of 37.5◦C is
ideal.
• 4) Turner: There should be a turner to prevent the embryo getting stucked
shell. This should be done at least three times daily.
Chicken female reproductive part
 Diseases

• Disease is an alteration of normal body

functions

• Disease arises from a combination of

factors common ones being
– Indirect or predisposing factors which lower body
resistance (chilling, poor ventilation,
overcrowding)
– Direct causes which produce actual disease such
as bacteria, viruses, fungi, protozoa and
nutritional deficiencies
124
 Mechanisms of disease
transmission
• In order to control diseases one has to
know how they are transmitted and the
common ways are shown below
– Transovarial route
– Transmission on the egg shell surface
– Direct transmission
– Indirect contact
– Dissemination by wind
– Biological vectors
– Feed
125
 Classification of poultry
diseases
There are two ways of classifying
poultry diseases
1. Based on body systems/parts
affected e.g respiratory, digestive,
Nervous

2. Based on causative agents e.g

bacterial, Viral, parasitic, protozoan,
fungal, nutritional etc.

126
127
Clinical Signs Possible Causes
Huddling near heat source Low brooding temperature. Disease condition - salmonellosis, coccidiosis, NCD, CRD, etc.
Diarrhea High salt content of feed (normal level is 0.37%). If whitish diarrhea with mortality - salmonellosis or
bacterial enteritis(coliform infection). If bloody with mortality - coccidiosis.
Panting or gasping High brooding temperature. Poor ventilation, strong ammonia odor. Pullorum disease or respiratory
disease - NCD, IB, CRD, aspergillosis and air sacculitis.
Sudden heavy mortality Suffocation - poor ventilation. Food poisoning. Disease conditions such as coccidiosis, acute typhoid,
cholera, salmonellosis, and wing rot.
Poor stock.
Tremors/paralysis Epideic tumor (AE). Vitamin E deficiency. Mineral deficiencies. NCD (usually following respiratory
signs).
Drop in feed consumption Stale or unpalatable feed. High brooding temperature. Disease conditions - CRD, NCD, IB,
salmonellosis, etc.
Watery eyes/nasal discharge Strong ammonia odor. Disease problems infectious bronchitis, IB, and CRD.
Conjuctivitis Strong ammonia odor. NCD.
Paleness Nutritional problem - poor quality feeds or faulty feeding. Coccidiosis. ding rot.
Poor feathering/ poor growth/ lack of Faulty nutrition - check feed and feeding system. Subclinical infections. Overcrowding. Poor brooding
uniformity temperature. Poor stock.
Layers/Breeders
Paleness Nutritional problem - poor quality feed or faulty feeding. Chronic coccidiosis. Blood parasitism, avian
malaria, aegyptianellosis, or leucocytozoonosis. Crop mycosis. Marek's disease. Lymphoid leukosis.

Paralysis Nutritional deficiency. Cage layer Fatigue. Marek's disease. Mechanical cause.
Watery eyes/ nasal discharge Strong ammonia odor. Disease problems IB, NCD, CRD, and coryza.
Gasping, tracheal rales NCD, IB, CRD, coryza, and laryngo - tracheitis and fowl pox (wet type).
Sudden drop in egg production Nutritional problem - abrupt change in feed. Stress condition - sudden change in weather condition,
fright. Vaccination. Sulfa medication. Deworming. Acute disease problems - NCD, cholera, IB.

Soft shelled egg High environmental temperature. Nutritional problem - calcium, phosphorus, vitamins A & D
deficiency. Sulfa medication. Disease problems- IB, NCD, fowl cholera, etc.
Poor egg production Nutritional problem - faulty feeding, poor quality feed. Subclinical or chronic infections. Parasitism -
external or internal parasites. Poor housing - overcrowding, poor ventilation. Poor stock.
128
Disease control and treatment

Control: This includes all mgt practices,

specific or non specific which are applied in
order to reduce disease incidences. These
include
Disinfection
Decontamination
Vaccinations

Treatment: this is in most cases involves the

use of drugs. Drugs can be administered
individually or by mass.

129
 Biosecurity
• Refers to all management practices aimed at
excluding or reducing potential for transmission or
spread of disease to animals, humans, or an area
initially free from disease causing agents

• There are three biosecurity principles that are key

in preventing the entry of disease into a flock or
the spread of disease from infected premises
i) Bio exclusion ii) Bio-containment iii) bio-
management
 1. Bio-exclusion
Techniques used to prevent introduction of unwanted
disease agents into the farm. E.g
i)Fencing (with one entrance/gate only)
ii)Water bath and foot bath- (all workers & visitors)
iii)Location of the farm (away from residential area,
wild birds)
iv) Control traffic In and around susceptible areas to
limit exposure.
v) Controlling movement of equipment and products
 Bio-containment
• Used to prevent spread of disease within the farm/
or neighboring farms: Include,
i) Foot bath and sanitization of vehicles
ii)Operation- from chicks  Grower-. Adults
iii) identifying clean and dirty sides of the farming
operation and always working from clean to dirty
 2. Bio-management
i) Vaccinations and treatments
ii) Housing system design and placement (10-20m
apart)
iii) Floor/dry litter
iv) Walls/windows- allow good ventilation
v) Roof- prevent rain water, good ventilation
Overall, the intent of biosecurity measures is to ensure
both exclusion and containment of infectious
agents to prevent infection of clean flocks and
prevent spread of disease from infected premises.
 Record keeping
• This involves itemizing all activities
undertaken at the poultry farm, costs
and revenues

• Records enable the farmer to determine

financial viability of the farm

• Records kept should be simple and

should be kept at all stages of
production
134
 Types of records
• Financial: includes all expenses and costs
• Inventory: detailed list of all items or
properties of the farm, taken before and
after every batch
• Production (meat and eggs)
• Hatchability/fertility

135