Name- sagar

kumar
roll no-40822028
bsc data analytics

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 Data Preprocessing

 Data Preprocessing: An Overview

 Data Quality
 Major Tasks in Data Preprocessing
 Data Cleaning
 Data Integration
 Data Reduction
 Data Transformation and Data Discretization
 Summary
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 Data Quality: Why Preprocess the
Data?

 Measures for data quality: A multidimensional view


Accuracy: correct or wrong, accurate or not

Completeness: not recorded, unavailable, …

Consistency: some modified but some not,
dangling, …

Timeliness: timely update?

Believability: how trustable the data are correct?

Interpretability: how easily the data can be
understood?
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 Major Tasks in Data Preprocessing
 Data cleaning
 Fill in missing values, smooth noisy data, identify or
remove outliers, and resolve inconsistencies
 Data integration
 Integration of multiple databases, data cubes, or files
 Data reduction
 Dimensionality reduction
 Numerosity reduction
 Data compression
 Data transformation and data discretization
 Normalization
 Concept hierarchy generation
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 Chapter 3: Data Preprocessing

 Data Preprocessing: An Overview

 Data Quality
 Major Tasks in Data Preprocessing
 Data Cleaning
 Data Integration
 Data Reduction
 Data Transformation and Data Discretization
 Summary
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 Data Cleaning
 Data in the Real World Is Dirty: Lots of potentially incorrect data,
e.g., instrument faulty, human or computer error, transmission
error

incomplete: lacking attribute values, lacking certain attributes
of interest, or containing only aggregate data

e.g., Occupation=“ ” (missing data)

noisy: containing noise, errors, or outliers

e.g., Salary=“−10” (an error)

inconsistent: containing discrepancies in codes or names, e.g.,

Age=“42”, Birthday=“03/07/2010”

Was rating “1, 2, 3”, now rating “A, B, C”

discrepancy between duplicate records

Intentional (e.g., disguised missing data)

Jan. 1 as everyone’s birthday?
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 Incomplete (Missing) Data
 Data is not always available
 E.g., many tuples have no recorded value for several
attributes, such as customer income in sales data
 Missing data may be due to
 equipment malfunction
 inconsistent with other recorded data and thus
deleted
 data not entered due to misunderstanding
 certain data may not be considered important at the
time of entry
 not register history or changes of the data
 Missing data may need to be inferred
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 How to Handle Missing
Data?
 Ignore the tuple: usually done when class label is
missing (when doing classification)—not effective when
the % of missing values per attribute varies
considerably
 Fill in the missing value manually: tedious + infeasible?
 Fill in it automatically with
 a global constant : e.g., “unknown”, a new class?!
 the attribute mean
 the attribute mean for all samples belonging to the
same class: smarter
 the most probable value: inference-based such as
Bayesian formula or decision tree
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 Noisy Data
 Noise: random error or variance in a measured
variable
 Incorrect attribute values may be due to

faulty data collection instruments

data entry problems

data transmission problems

technology limitation

inconsistency in naming convention
 Other data problems which require data cleaning

duplicate records

incomplete data

inconsistent data
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 How to Handle Noisy Data?
 Binning

first sort data and partition into (equal-frequency)
bins

then one can smooth by bin means, smooth by bin
median, smooth by bin boundaries, etc.
 Regression

smooth by fitting the data into regression functions
 Clustering

detect and remove outliers
 Combined computer and human inspection

detect suspicious values and check by human (e.g.,
deal with possible outliers)

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 Data Cleaning as a Process
 Data discrepancy detection
 Use metadata (e.g., domain, range, dependency, distribution)

 Check field overloading

 Check uniqueness rule, consecutive rule and null rule

 Use commercial tools


Data scrubbing: use simple domain knowledge (e.g.,
postal code, spell-check) to detect errors and make
corrections

Data auditing: by analyzing data to discover rules and
relationship to detect violators (e.g., correlation and
clustering to find outliers)
 Data migration and integration
 Data migration tools: allow transformations to be specified

 ETL (Extraction/Transformation/Loading) tools: allow users to

specify transformations through a graphical user interface

 Integration of the two processes
 Iterative and interactive (e.g., Potter’s Wheels)

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 Chapter 3: Data Preprocessing

 Data Preprocessing: An Overview

 Data Quality
 Major Tasks in Data Preprocessing
 Data Cleaning
 Data Integration
 Data Reduction
 Data Transformation and Data Discretization
 Summary
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 Data Integration
 Data integration:
 Combines data from multiple sources into a coherent store
 Schema integration: e.g., A.cust-id  B.cust-#
 Integrate metadata from different sources
 Entity identification problem:
 Identify real world entities from multiple data sources, e.g.,
Bill Clinton = William Clinton
 Detecting and resolving data value conflicts
 For the same real world entity, attribute values from
different sources are different
 Possible reasons: different representations, different
scales, e.g., metric vs. British units
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 Handling Redundancy in Data
Integration

 Redundant data occur often when integration of

multiple databases

Object identification: The same attribute or object
may have different names in different databases

Derivable data: One attribute may be a “derived”
attribute in another table, e.g., annual revenue
 Redundant attributes may be able to be detected by
correlation analysis and covariance analysis
 Careful integration of the data from multiple sources
may help reduce/avoid redundancies and
inconsistencies and improve mining speed and
quality
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 Chi-Square Calculation: An
Example

Play Not play Sum

chess chess (row)
Like science fiction 250(90) 200(360) 450
Not like science 50(210) 1000(840) 1050
fiction
Sum(col.) 300 1200 1500

 Χ2 (chi-square) calculation (numbers in parenthesis

are expected counts calculated based on the data
distribution in the two categories)
(250  90) 2 (50  210) 2 (200  360) 2 (1000  840) 2
 
2
   507.93
90 210 360 840
 It shows that like_science_fiction and play_chess
are correlated in the group
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Visually Evaluating Correlation

Scatter plots
showing the
similarity from
–1 to 1.

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 Correlation (viewed as linear
relationship)
 Correlation measures the linear relationship
between objects
 To compute correlation, we standardize
data objects, A and B, and then take their
dot product
a 'k (ak  mean( A)) / std ( A)

b'k (bk  mean( B )) / std ( B )

correlation( A, B)  A' B'

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 Covariance (Numeric Data)
 Covariance is similar to correlation

Correlation coefficient:
where n is the number of tuples, and are the respective mean
or expected values of A and B, A σ andBσ are the respective
A B

standard deviation of A and B.

 Positive covariance: If CovA,B > 0, then A and B both tend to be larger
than their expected values.
 Negative covariance: If CovA,B < 0 then if A is larger than its expected
value, B is likely to be smaller than its expected value.

Independence: CovA,B = 0 but the converse is not true:
 Some pairs of random variables may have a covariance of 0 but are not
independent. Only under some additional assumptions (e.g., the data follow
multivariate normal distributions) does a covariance of 0 imply
independence
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 Co-Variance: An Example

 It can be simplified in computation as

 Suppose two stocks A and B have the following values in one

week: (2, 5), (3, 8), (5, 10), (4, 11), (6, 14).
 Question: If the stocks are affected by the same industry trends,
will their prices rise or fall together?

E(A) = (2 + 3 + 5 + 4 + 6)/ 5 = 20/5 = 4

E(B) = (5 + 8 + 10 + 11 + 14) /5 = 48/5 = 9.6

Cov(A,B) = (2×5+3×8+5×10+4×11+6×14)/5 − 4 × 9.6 = 4
 Thus, A and B rise together since Cov(A, B) > 0.
 Data Reduction Strategies
 Data reduction: Obtain a reduced representation of the data
set that is much smaller in volume but yet produces the same
(or almost the same) analytical results
 Why data reduction? — A database/data warehouse may store
terabytes of data. Complex data analysis may take a very
long time to run on the complete data set.
 Data reduction strategies
 Dimensionality reduction, e.g., remove unimportant

attributes

Wavelet transforms

Principal Components Analysis (PCA)

Feature subset selection, feature creation
 Numerosity reduction (some simply call it: Data Reduction)


Regression and Log-Linear Models

Histograms, clustering, sampling

Data cube aggregation
 Data compression
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Data Reduction 1: Dimensionality
Reduction
 Curse of dimensionality
 When dimensionality increases, data becomes increasingly sparse
 Density and distance between points, which is critical to
clustering, outlier analysis, becomes less meaningful
 The possible combinations of subspaces will grow exponentially
 Dimensionality reduction
 Avoid the curse of dimensionality
 Help eliminate irrelevant features and reduce noise
 Reduce time and space required in data mining
 Allow easier visualization
 Dimensionality reduction techniques
 Wavelet transforms
 Principal Component Analysis
 Supervised and nonlinear techniques (e.g., feature selection)

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 Mapping Data to a New Space
 Fourier transform
 Wavelet transform

Two Sine Waves Two Sine Waves + Noise Frequency

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 What Is Wavelet Transform?
 Decomposes a signal into
different frequency subbands
 Applicable to n-
dimensional signals
 Data are transformed to
preserve relative distance
between objects at different
levels of resolution
 Allow natural clusters to
become more distinguishable
 Used for image compression

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 Wavelet
Transformation
Haar2 Daubechie4
 Discrete wavelet transform (DWT) for linear signal
processing, multi-resolution analysis
 Compressed approximation: store only a small fraction of
the strongest of the wavelet coefficients
 Similar to discrete Fourier transform (DFT), but better
lossy compression, localized in space
 Method:
 Length, L, must be an integer power of 2 (padding with 0’s, when
necessary)
 Each transform has 2 functions: smoothing, difference
 Applies to pairs of data, resulting in two set of data of length L/2
 Applies two functions recursively, until reaches the desired length

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 Wavelet Decomposition
 Wavelets: A math tool for space-efficient
hierarchical decomposition of functions
 S = [2, 2, 0, 2, 3, 5, 4, 4] can be transformed to S^
= [23/4, -11/4, 1/2, 0, 0, -1, -1, 0]
 Compression: many small detail coefficients can
be replaced by 0’s, and only the significant
coefficients are retained

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 Haar Wavelet Coefficients
Coefficient
Hierarchical “Supports”
2.75
decomposition 2.75 +
structure (a.k.a. +
“error tree”) + -1.25
-
-1.25
+ -
0.5
+
0.5
- +
0
- 0
+
-
0 -1 -1 0
+
-
+ + 0
- - + - + -
-1
+
-+
-+
2 2 0 2 3 5 4 4
-1
Original frequency distribution 0 -+
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-
 Why Wavelet Transform?
 Use hat-shape filters
 Emphasize region where points cluster

 Suppress weaker information in their boundaries

 Effective removal of outliers

 Insensitive to noise, insensitive to input order

 Multi-resolution
 Detect arbitrary shaped clusters at different

scales
 Efficient
 Complexity O(N)

 Only applicable to low dimensional data

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Principal Component Analysis (PCA)
 Find a projection that captures the largest amount of variation in data
 The original data are projected onto a much smaller space, resulting in
dimensionality reduction. We find the eigenvectors of the covariance
matrix, and these eigenvectors define the new space

x2

x1
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 Principal Component Analysis
(Steps)
 Given N data vectors from n-dimensions, find k ≤ n orthogonal vectors
(principal components) that can be best used to represent data

Normalize input data: Each attribute falls within the same range

Compute k orthonormal (unit) vectors, i.e., principal components

Each input data (vector) is a linear combination of the k principal
component vectors

The principal components are sorted in order of decreasing
“significance” or strength

Since the components are sorted, the size of the data can be
reduced by eliminating the weak components, i.e., those with low
variance (i.e., using the strongest principal components, it is
possible to reconstruct a good approximation of the original data)
 Works for numeric data only

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 Attribute Subset Selection
 Another way to reduce dimensionality of data
 Redundant attributes
 Duplicate much or all of the information
contained in one or more other attributes
 E.g., purchase price of a product and the
amount of sales tax paid
 Irrelevant attributes
 Contain no information that is useful for the
data mining task at hand
 E.g., students' ID is often irrelevant to the task
of predicting students' GPA

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Sampling: With or without
Replacement

W O R
SRS le random
i m p ho ut
( s e wi t
l
samp ment)
p l a ce
re

SRSW
R

Raw Data
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