ORGANIC AGRICULTURE

Soil management
soil fertility and nutrient
management

Clarita Pagadua Aganon

• Soil fertility and plant nutrition are important
components of crop production. The technique
used to attain and sustain acceptable level of soil
fertility for crop production significantly differs
between conventional and organic farming.
Conventional farming is heavily dependent on
chemical-based fertilizer inputs unlike in
organic farming.
understanding the techniques and procedures
in soil fertility management is important in
providing adequate and proper nutrition to
plants, thus realizing better yields, attaining
cost-efficiency in farming and ecological
balance which are not attained through the
conventional method.
• Introduction
The soil is composed of four major components:
air, water, minerals and organic matter. In the absence
of one of these components, a material cannot be
considered a soil. Aside from providing mechanical
support to plants, it serves as a reservoir of nutrients-
both the naturally occurring and those supplied by
fertilizers. Procedures and practices for maintaining
and sustaining the fertility and productivity of soils for
organic crop production are different from the
conventional method.
• Conventional Farming System essentially
utilizes synthetic fertilizers as major source of
nutrients. Organic crop production depends on
organic material sources and microbial
inoculants/organisms for sustaining soil health
and supplying nutrients to the plants. Such is in
harmony with the standards of OA, which
prohibits the use of synthetic fertilizer inputs.
• Essential Plant Nutrients
Just like any living organism, plants require a
balanced nutrition for optimum growth. Plants require
16 essential elements for their growth. Nitrogen,
phosphorus, potassium, calcium, sulfur in addition to
carbon, hydrogen and oxygen are elements required in
higher quantity and thus are called macro-elements.
The rest such as iron, manganese, copper, boron,
molybdenum, chloride and zinc are called
micronutrients since plants require them in minute
amounts.
•These elements are inherently present in
soils but due to continuous conventional
method of fertilizer management, their
availability are reduced and become limiting
in crop production. Examoles are the sulfur
and zinc deficiencies in lowland irrigated
rice fields.
• Nitrogen
Among the essential plants nutrients, Nitrogen (N) is
the most limiting and is required by most crops in
great amounts. Nitrogen is necessary in chlorophyll
production, which is responsible for the green
coloration of the leaves. Lack of N results in
yellowing of leaves, beginning with the lower leaves
since nitrogen is a mobile element (Fig.1).
Chlorophyll is needed to produce food for growth and
nutrient uptake.
• It is also a component of amino acids, a
building block of proteins. Nitrogen supplied by
synthetic fertilizers is highly prone to leaching
(washed out) or volatilization (evaporation),
particularly in soils with low or negligible
organic matter or low nutrient holding capacity.
• Synthetic nitrogen sources are not allowed in
organic farming. It follows that N should be
supplied from organic and microbial sources
without sacrificing the quantity and quality of
yield. Farm residues and farm by-products are
important sources of nitrogen as well as
biological and non-biological nitrogen fixation.
For efficient soil nitrogen management the
following are suggested:
• Incorporate farm residues 2-4 weeks before land preparation
to avoid subjecting the plant to “nitrogen hunger”.
• Practice intermittent flooding and draining in rice to reduce
leaching and other losses.
• Maintain a soil organic matter content of 2% or more to
increase nutrient holding capacity of the soil.
• Avoid a very dry soil condition to enhance microbial growth
and activity
• Phosphorus
Phosphorus (P) is essential in root growth and
development and in energy transport in plants.
Phosphorus also encourages flowering and ripening of
seeds. Deficiency of phosphorus in plants is easily
diagnosed by the purplish coloration of the leaves
(Fig. 2), which in extreme level leads to death. It also
hinders plant growth resulting in poor root growth and
delay in flowering and ripening.
Soils deficient in organic matter are poor in
phosphates. Soil solution phosphorus is sparingly
available. Among the essential nutrients, P is the most
affected by soil pH. Likewise, only very small
quantities of phosphate adsorbed onto soil particles
can be dissolved making its availability to plants low.
The colonization of plant roots with mychorriza,
however, can improve the P uptake of plants.
Ways to improve soil P availability and sequestration:
• Grow deep-rooted crops on the perimeter of the farm
• Combine crops of different families in a cropping mix
• Maintain soil pH of 6-6.5
• Augment soil P availability by using rock phosphate in
combination with organic fertilizers or compost.
• Employ mulching to conserve moisture and as source of
organic fertilizers or compost.
• Improve the growing conditions for mychorriza by
planting trees around the farm
• Potassium
Unlike other elements, potassium (K) apparently does
not form an integral part of protoplasm, fats, and
cellulose. Its role is more of catalytic in nature such as
in carbohydrate metabolism and starch synthesis and
breakdown; nitrogen metabolism and protein synthesis
and in stomata movement and water relations. It is also
known for its ability to develop resistance to diseases
in plants. In straw and grain crops such as rice, K to N
content is in a ratio of 1:3 while in most vegetables it is
at a ratio of 1:1.
• Potassium is high in clayey soils. Similar to N, it is mobile
and its deficiency results in a premature death of older plant
parts first. An excessive supply of N and/or calcium (Ca)
often results in K deficiency. Its deficiency results in stunted
plants with small leaves and small and few fruits. Most
plants that suffer for K deficiency are not diagnosed early
because of the hidden hunger principle. It is therefore
important to have the soil tested at least every 2 years. In
nature, K is supplied through weathering of minerals in the
soil. The need for K is strongly linked to the type of crops
being cultivated. Tuber crops and tomato are especially
sensitive to insufficient supply of K.
Ways to improve K level in soils:
• Incorporate crop residues (especially straw) and
animal manures in the soil after harvest
• Provide permanent plant cover during rainy
period (wet season) to avoid leaching losses
• Increase the humus content of the soil through
application of compost or organic fertilizers
• Employ mulching
• Incorporate carbonized rice hull
• Other macronutrients such as calcium (Ca) and sulfur
(S) and micronutrients are generally found in soils
and are releases during weathering of minerals.
Reported deficiencies of these nutrients are minimal
and are easily handled through application of organic
materials and residues or organic fertilizer in
combination with rock phosphates (particularly for
Ca deficiency) and application of fermented plant
juices from ‘kangkong,’’kakawate’( Gliricidia
sepium), and others.
What is a fertilizer?
A fertilizer is any substance that is added to the
soil or to the plant (foliar) to supply the elements
required in plant nutrition.
Organic Fertilizer
This is defined as any product of plant or animal
origin that has undergone substantial
decomposition through biological, chemical or
any other process where the original materials are
no longer recognizable, free from chemical
fertilizers, any pathogens, soil-like in texture,
contains not less than 20% organic matter (OM)
and can supply nutrients to plants.
• Synthetic or Chemical Fertilizer
This is a substance that supplies one or more nutrient
elements, which are produced through chemical
processes. They usually contain high amount of
nutrients and dissolve in water.
Chemical-based fertilizers, through the years, are
undeniably responsible for the large increases in the
yields of crops particularly during the advent of
“Green Revolution”. They have contributed to the
boosting of crop production that eventually saved
humanity from hunger.
The extensive and intensive cropping registered
successes during the Green Revolution and these
motivated most farmers to continuously use
chemical fertilizers alone for the last 30 years or
so. Because of this, soils developed fertility
imbalance.
A shift into the organic approach of managing soil
fertility will give the following benefits and advantages:
• Provide a more balanced and continuous supply of nutrients
• Improve soil aeration
• Increase water infiltration and water storage capacity
• Improve soil tilth by enhancing soil aggregate stability
• Decrease soil erosion losses due to better soil aggregation
• Increase the soil nutrient holding and exchange capacity
• Promote growth of microorganisms
While chemical fertilizers give immediate effects to plants, there are negative
effects that cannot be eliminated particularly due to its long term use:
• Acidification of the soil particularly due to heavy application of N-
containing fertilizers
• Heavy application of N-containing fertilizers pose problems of high nitrite
accumulation in plant
• Sole use of fertilizers containing only NPK result in deficiency of other
nutrients particularly micronutrients due to continuous crop removal without
replacement
• Inhibit proliferation of N-fixing microorganisms in the soil due to excess N
supply
• Deprive the soil of organic matter build-up, resulting in the destruction and
degradation of soil structure
• Soil Organic Matter
In healthy agricultural soils, the solid material
(approximately 95-98%) is mineral in nature. The
remaining 2-5% of the solid material is organic matter.
Organic matter consists primarily of decayed or
decaying plant and animal residues and is very
important soil component. The amount of soil organic
matter (SOM) has important implications for
agricultural productivity.
SOM is the living component of the soil because it is
the seat of microorganisms responsible for many
biological transformations in soils. In organic farming,
SOM serves as the main pool of nutrients for crops
aside from symbiotic and non-symbiotic N fixation.
Ready and abundant supply of organic matter is
achieved through nutrient cycling. This means that the
farm operation should be such that all farm wastes and
residues generated in the farm should be brought back
to produce organic matter for the soil.
On the average, SOM contains about 5% N. However, this N
is not readily available to plants because it is tied up in
organic compounds. As organic matter breaks down or
mineralizes, N is released slowly to plant roots.
Most common sources of organic materials in the farm
(Fig.3):
• Crop residues after harvest
• Animal manures
• Green manures planted in rotation either as legume forage
(Centrosema) or edible legumes (mungbean)
• Compost
• Household wates
Even in ancient agriculture, continuous cropping without
addition of manures (animal and green manures) would fail
to produce satisfactorily. Soil low in organic should be
generously applied with compost materials or green-manured
as often as possible. The amount of organic fertilizer or
compost application will depend on the nutrient content.
Generally, rates as high as 30 t/ha are applied. Crop residues
can be incorporated in the soil and left for some time to
decompose. For a month, or so, N and S may become
temporarily tied up. To avoid temporarily tie-up of N and S
that results in deprivation of nutrients by the growing crop, it
is important to apply organic materials that have undergone
decomposition and have attained a C:N rate of < 20:1.
• Farm wastes may also be converted to organic
fertilizer or compost by microbial decomposition or
vermicomposting. When compost are to be produced
as source of organic matter and fertilizer, the
following are important points to consider in mixing
the raw materials:
• For those who are interested in vermicomposting, read the section
on “ Vermiculture and Vermicompost Production and Utilization.”
Whereas, for the details of composting procedure, refer to the
section on “Organic Fertilizer Production.
• Practices that will Reduce Losses of SOM
• Rotate diverse crops with high biomass
• Use cover crops or close-ground growing crop
• Reduce tillage
• Practice rotational grazing
• Use manure and crop residues
• Do not burn crop residues
• The hydrogen peroxide method is another means of qualitatively
assessing organic matter content in the soil. A small amount of soil
is placed in a bottle lid halfway. Hydrogen peroxide (1 ml) is
added using a medicine dropper. The longer the duration of
bubbling is, the higher is the organic matter content of the soil.
• Green Manures
Although there is no record when man started using synthetic
fertilizers, the value of green manures in enriching the soil was
mentioned in Old Testament. The best legumes for enriching the
soil are field beans and the most common is mungbean. Green
manures are grown and turned under before seed maturity. At the
stage, the plants have accumulated maximum biomass and nutrients
that mineralize and become available to the plant at a faster rate.
Benefits from Green Manuring
• Enhanced soil aggregation and granulation brought about by the
root penetration. The roots serve as channels for water infiltration.
• Green manures are established at higher population, three times
more than the population intended for economic production.
Hence, these crops, are effective as weed control.
• Green manure legumes enrich the soil not only with organic matter
but with nitrogen through symbiotic nitrogen fixation.
• Green manures can be used as fodder plants or even to provide
food for human consumption (e.g. beans and peas).
• Nitrogen Fixation
While there are enough evidences that green manuring
is an efficient method of enriching the soil with
nutrients, adoption is not extensive due to:
• Intensive labor requirement during cutting
• The legumes are not allowed to grow until maturity;
• Legumes other than edible legumes have costly
seeds; and
• Some tree legumes (such as Leucaena and Gliricidia)
are host to sucking insects.
• The exploitation of legumes as host of Rhizobium for
symbiotic nitrogen fixation has been dwindling due
to the availability of synthetic fertilizers. In addition
to symbiotic nitrogen fixation, mychorrizal fungi are
also sources of microbial fertilizers due to their
ability to colonize the root system and supply it with
phosphorus.
• Nitrogen fixation in soils is also brought about by
certain free-living organisms to include blue green
algae and bacteria. The most important
are:Clostridium, Azotobacter, and Azospirilium.
• Many local and foreign companies recommend some
microbial inoculants such as Bio-N, Xemas, Solex,
and Bokashi. Among these microbial fertilizers, Bio-
N is widely recommended and being promoted by the
government for rice, corn and vegetables under the
Tipid Abono Program and organic Agriculture
Program.
• Multicropping
Multicropping as opposed to monocropping is the
growing of several crops/species in the same piece of
land at the same time or in sequence within a year.
There are several types of multicropping:
intercropping, multi-storey planning, relay
cropping, and crop rotation.
• Intercropping
This is the growing of two or more crops in alternate
rows in the same piece of land in the same season per
year. The crops are of different family and are
supposed to receive benefits from their association.
Examples are corn + mungbean intercropping, corn +
peanut intercropping.
• Multistorey Planning
In this system, three or more crops of varying depths
of root proliferation are grown in a storey fashion.
Crops consist of perennials and annuals. Smaller
crops are supposed to have some degree of tolerance
to shading. Examples are mixtures of papaya + corn +
legumes + crucifers (lowland cropping system) with
botanical plants around the perimeter of the farm;
‘lanzones’+ coffee + pineapple + ginger
(upland/highland cropping system) with botanicals in
the perimeter of the farm.
• Relay Cropping
This is the planting of crop even before the harvest of
the main crop. The most common of this type is rice-
mungbean cropping. The mungbean is usually planted
3-5 days before the rice crops are harvested and when
the soil is still moist. The objective is to take
advantage of the residual moisture and nutrients from
the soil particularly in rain fed areas. Mungbeans are
inoculated with Rhizobium for purpose of N fixation.
• Crop Rotation
This is the growing of crops alternately in different
parts of the farm in planned fashion to protect the soil
from erosion and to build the fertility. The rotation is
basically that of crops providing effective
protection/soil building and a row crop. Again
legumes are generally used as protection-effective
crops and cereals/vegetables as row crops.
• In hilly or rolling areas, it is important to provide hedgegrows of
grass + legumes trees in the buffer strips to further arrest or
control erosion. These types of multicropping provide some or all
of the following advantages:
• Promote diversification, which enables the distribution of risk in
farming and continuous supply of different products from the
farm.
• Reduce pest infestation by the repellent effects of the crops or the
non-preference of the pest to the crops. The diversity increases
diseases resistance and makes it more difficult for pest and
microbial pathogens to find certain host plant species.
• Improve soil fertility by mixing legumes, such as
beans that improve N supply of the non-legumes in a
later term.
• Increase nutrient and water use efficiency by
exploiting the different depths of soil layers.
• Provide more dense vegetation through a combination
of several crops resulting in better soil cover, thus
suppressing weeds more efficiently.
• Monocropping is not encouraged in organic farming because of
its technical implications in nutrient cycling, organic matter
management, and pest management. The following are some
negative effects of monocropping:
• Build-up of pest due to continuous availability of host. Usually,
life cycle of the insect pest is not disrupted since it has unlimited
supply of food;
• Uniform root system allows constant depth by which nutrients are
extracted, hence nutrient depletion at certain soil depth becomes
very fast;
• Nutrient cycling and organic matter build-up is lower, and;
• Microbial proliferation may be affected.
• Self-assessment 3:
• What are the elements necessary for plant growth?
• What are the advantages and disadvantages of inorganic fertilizer usage?
• What is an organic fertilizer? What are some of its characteristics?
• Give the advantages of using organic fertilizer.
• What are the important steps to efficient manage soil organic matter and
some means to increase its level in the soil?
• What are nitrogen fixers? How are they classified?
• What do we get from multicropping in terms of?
• Soil fertility management
• Pest Control
• Microclimate
• Risk in Farming