Credit Risk

Chapter 22

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Credit Ratings
In the S&P rating system, AAA is the best
rating. After that comes AA, A, BBB, BB, B,
CCC, CC, and C
The corresponding Moody’s ratings are
Aaa, Aa, A, Baa, Ba, B, Caa, Ca, and C
Bonds with ratings of BBB (or Baa) and
above are considered to be “investment
grade”

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Historical Data

Historical data provided by rating agencies

are also used to estimate the probability of
default

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Cumulative Ave Default Rates (%)
(1970-2006, Moody’s, Table 22.1, page 498)

1 2 3 4 5 7 10
Aaa 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.026 0.099 0.251 0.521
Aa 0.008 0.019 0.042 0.106 0.177 0.343 0.522
A 0.021 0.095 0.220 0.344 0.472 0.759 1.287
Baa 0.181 0.506 0.930 1.434 1.938 2.959 4.637
Ba 1.205 3.219 5.568 7.958 10.215 14.005 19.118
B 5.236 11.296 17.043 22.054 26.794 34.771 43.343
Caa-C 19.476 30.494 39.717 46.904 52.622 59.938 69.178

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Interpretation
The table shows the probability of default
for companies starting with a particular
credit rating
A company with an initial credit rating of
Baa has a probability of 0.181% of
defaulting by the end of the first year,
0.506% by the end of the second year, and
so on

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Do Default Probabilities Increase
with Time?
For a company that starts with a good credit
rating default probabilities tend to increase
with time
For a company that starts with a poor credit
rating default probabilities tend to decrease
with time

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Default Intensities vs Unconditional
Default Probabilities (page 498-99)
The default intensity (also called hazard
rate) is the probability of default for a
certain time period conditional on no earlier
default
The unconditional default probability is the
probability of default for a certain time
period as seen at time zero
What are the default intensities and
unconditional default probabilities for a Caa
rate company in the third year?
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Default Intensity (Hazard Rate)
 The default intensity (hazard rate) that is usually
quoted is an instantaneous
 If V(t) is the probability of a company surviving to
time t
V (t  t )  V (t )  (t )V (t )
This leads to
t

V (t ) e 
0
 ( t ) dt

The cumulative probability of default by time t is

Q(t ) 1  e   (t )t

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Recovery Rate
The recovery rate for a bond is usually
defined as the price of the bond
immediately after default as a percent of its
face value

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Recovery Rates
(Moody’s: 1982 to 2006, Table 22.2, page 499)

Class Mean(%)
Senior Secured 54.44

Senior Unsecured 38.39

Senior Subordinated 32.85

Subordinated 31.61

Junior Subordinated 24.47

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Estimating Default Probabilities

Alternatives:
◦ Use Bond Prices
◦ Use CDS spreads
◦ Use Historical Data
◦ Use Merton’s Model

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 Using Bond Prices (Equation 22.2,
page 500)

Average default intensity over life of

bond is approximately
s
1 R
where s is the spread of the bond’s
yield over the risk-free rate and R is the
recovery rate

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More Exact Calculation
 Assume that a five year corporate bond pays a
coupon of 6% per annum (semiannually). The yield
is 7% with continuous compounding and the yield
on a similar risk-free bond is 5% (with continuous
compounding)
 Price of risk-free bond is 104.09; price of corporate
bond is 95.34; expected loss from defaults is 8.75
 Suppose that the probability of default is Q per year
and that defaults always happen half way through a
year (immediately before a coupon payment.

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 Calculations (Table 22.3, page 501)

Time Def Recovery Risk-free LGD Discount PV of Exp

(yrs) Prob Amount Value Factor Loss
0.5 Q 40 106.73 66.73 0.9753 65.08Q

1.5 Q 40 105.97 65.97 0.9277 61.20Q

2.5 Q 40 105.17 65.17 0.8825 57.52Q

3.5 Q 40 104.34 64.34 0.8395 54.01Q

4.5 Q 40 103.46 63.46 0.7985 50.67Q

Total 288.48Q

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Calculations continued
We set 288.48Q = 8.75 to get Q = 3.03%
This analysis can be extended to allow
defaults to take place more frequently
With several bonds we can use more
parameters to describe the default
probability distribution

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The Risk-Free Rate
The risk-free rate when default probabilities
are estimated is usually assumed to be the
LIBOR/swap zero rate (or sometimes 10
bps below the LIBOR/swap rate)
To get direct estimates of the spread of
bond yields over swap rates we can look at
asset swaps

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Real World vs Risk-Neutral
Default Probabilities
The default probabilities backed out of bond
prices or credit default swap spreads are
risk-neutral default probabilities
The default probabilities backed out of
historical data are real-world default
probabilities

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A Comparison
 Calculate 7-year default intensities from
the Moody’s data (These are real world
default probabilities)
 Use Merrill Lynch data to estimate
average 7-year default intensities from
bond prices (these are risk-neutral default
intensities)
 Assume a risk-free rate equal to the 7-
year swap rate minus 10 basis point

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 Real World vs Risk Neutral
Default Probabilities, 7 year
averages (Table 22.4, page 503)
Rating Real-world default Risk-neutral default Ratio Difference
probability per yr (% per probability per yr (% per
annum) year)
Aaa 0.04 0.60 16.7 0.56
Aa 0.05 0.74 14.6 0.68
A 0.11 1.16 10.5 1.04
Baa 0.43 2.13 5.0 1.71
Ba 2.16 4.67 2.2 2.54
B 6.10 7.97 1.3 1.98
Caa-C 13.07 18.16 1.4 5.50

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Risk Premiums Earned By Bond
Traders (Table 22.5, page 504)
Rating Bond Yield Spread of risk-free Spread to Extra Risk
Spread over rate used by market compensate for Premium
Treasuries over Treasuries default rate in the (bps)
(bps) (bps) real world (bps)
Aaa 78 42 2 34
Aa 87 42 4 42
A 112 42 7 63
Baa 170 42 26 102
Ba 323 42 129 151
B 521 42 366 112
Caa 1132 42 784 305

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Possible Reasons for These
Results
 Corporate bonds are relatively illiquid
 The subjective default probabilities of bond
traders may be much higher than the estimates
from Moody’s historical data
 Bonds do not default independently of each
other. This leads to systematic risk that cannot
be diversified away.
 Bond returns are highly skewed with limited
upside. The non-systematic risk is difficult to
diversify away and may be priced by the market

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Which World Should We Use?
We should use risk-neutral estimates for
valuing credit derivatives and estimating the
present value of the cost of default
We should use real world estimates for
calculating credit VaR and scenario
analysis

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Merton’s Model (page 506-507)
Merton’s model regards the equity as an
option on the assets of the firm
In a simple situation the equity value is

max(VT −D, 0)
where VT is the value of the firm and D is
the debt repayment required

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Equity vs. Assets
An option pricing model enables the value
of the firm’s equity today, E0, to be related
to the value of its assets today, V0, and the
volatility of its assets, V
E 0 V0 N ( d 1 )  De  rT N (d 2 )
where
ln (V0 D)  ( r  V2 2)T
d1  ; d 2 d 1  V T
V T

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Volatilities
E
 E E0  V V0  N (d 1 ) V V0
V

This equation together with the option

pricing relationship enables V0 andV to
be determined from E0 and E

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Example
A company’s equity is $3 million and the
volatility of the equity is 80%
The risk-free rate is 5%, the debt is $10
million and time to debt maturity is 1 year
Solving the two equations yields V0=12.40
and v=21.23%

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Example continued
The probability of default is N(-d2) or 12.7%
The market value of the debt is 9.40
The present value of the promised payment
is 9.51
The expected loss is about 1.2%
The recovery rate is 91%

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The Implementation of
Merton’s Model
Choose time horizon
Calculate cumulative obligations to time
horizon. This is termed by KMV the “default
point”. We denote it by D
Use Merton’s model to calculate a
theoretical probability of default
Use historical data or bond data to develop a
one-to-one mapping of theoretical probability
into either real-world or risk-neutral
probability of default.
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 Credit Risk in Derivatives
Transactions (page 510-512)
Three cases
Contract always an asset
Contract always a liability
Contract can be an asset or a liability

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General Result
 Assume that default probability is independent
of the value of the derivative
 Consider times t1, t2,…tn and default probability
is qi at time ti. The value of the contract at time
ti is fi and the recovery rate is R
 The loss from defaults at time ti is
qi(1-R)E[max(fi, 0)].
 Defining ui=qi(1-R) and vi as the value of a
n
derivative that provides a payoff ui vof
i
max(fi, 0) at
i 1
time ti, the cost of defaults is
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If Contract Is Always a Liability
(equation 22.9)

*  ( y *  y )T
f  f 0e
0

where derivative provides a payoff at time T .

f 0* is the actual value of the derivative and
f 0 is the default - free value.
y * is the yield on zero coupon bonds issued
by the seller of the derivative and y is the
risk - free yield for this maturity

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Credit Risk Mitigation
Netting
Collateralization
Downgrade triggers

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Default Correlation
The credit default correlation between two
companies is a measure of their tendency
to default at about the same time
Default correlation is important in risk
management when analyzing the benefits
of credit risk diversification
It is also important in the valuation of some
credit derivatives, eg a first-to-default CDS
and CDO tranches.

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Measurement
There is no generally accepted measure of
default correlation
Default correlation is a more complex
phenomenon than the correlation between
two random variables

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Binomial Correlation
Measure (page 516)
 One common default correlation measure,
between companies i and j is the
correlation between
◦ A variable that equals 1 if company i defaults
between time 0 and time T and zero otherwise
◦ A variable that equals 1 if company j defaults
between time 0 and time T and zero otherwise
 The value of this measure depends on T.
Usually it increases at T increases.

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 Binomial Correlation continued
Denote Qi(T) as the probability that company
A will default between time zero and time T,
and Pij(T) as the probability that both i and j
will default. The default correlation measure
is
Pij (T )  Qi (T )Q j (T )
ij (T ) 
2 2
[Qi (T )  Qi (T ) ][Q j (T )  Q j (T ) ]

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Survival Time Correlation
Define ti as the time to default for company i
and Qi(ti) as the probability distribution for ti
The default correlation between companies
i and j can be defined as the correlation
between ti and tj
But this does not uniquely define the joint
probability distribution of default times

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Gaussian Copula Model (page
514-515)

 Define a one-to-one correspondence between the

time to default, ti, of company i and a variable xi by
Qi(ti ) = N(xi ) or xi = N-1[Q(ti)]
where N is the cumulative normal distribution
function.
 This is a “percentile to percentile” transformation.
The p percentile point of the Qi distribution is
transformed to the p percentile point of the xi
distribution. xi has a standard normal distribution
 We assume that the x are multivariate normal. The
i
default correlation measure, ij between companies i
and j is the correlation between xi and xj
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 Binomial vs Gaussian Copula
Measures (Equation 22.14, page 516)
The measures can be calculated from each
other
Pij (T ) M [ xi , x j ; ij ]

so that
M [ xi , x j ; ij ]  Qi (T )Q j (T )
ij (T ) 
[Qi (T )  Qi (T ) 2 ][Q j (T )  Q j (T ) 2 ]

where M is the cumulative bivariate normal

probability distribution function
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Comparison (Example 22.4, page 516)
The correlation number depends on the
correlation metric used
Suppose T = 1, Qi(T) = Qj(T) = 0.01, a value
of ij equal to 0.2 corresponds to a value of
ij(T) equal to 0.024.
In general ij(T) < ij and ij(T) is an
increasing function of T

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Example of Use of Gaussian
Copula (Example 22.3, page 515)

Suppose that we wish to simulate the

defaults for n companies . For each company
the cumulative probabilities of default during
the next 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 years are 1%, 3%,
6%, 10%, and 15%, respectively

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 Use of Gaussian Copula continued

We sample from a multivariate normal

distribution to get the xi
Critical values of xi are
N -1(0.01) = -2.33, N -1(0.03) = -1.88,
N -1(0.06) = -1.55, N -1(0.10) = -1.28,
N -1(0.15) = -1.04

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Use of Gaussian Copula continued
 When sample for a company is less than
-2.33, the company defaults in the first year
 When sample is between -2.33 and -1.88, the
company defaults in the second year
 When sample is between -1.88 and -1.55, the
company defaults in the third year
 When sample is between -1,55 and -1.28, the
company defaults in the fourth year
 When sample is between -1.28 and -1.04, the
company defaults during the fifth year
 When sample is greater than -1.04, there is no
default during the first five years

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 A One-Factor Model for the
Correlation Structure (Equation 22.10 , page 515)
xi ai F  1 ai2 Z i

 The correlation between xi and xj is aiaj

 The ith company defaults by time T when
xi < N-1[Qi(T)] or
N  1[Qi (T )  ai F ]
Zi 
1  ai2

 Conditional on F the probability of this is

 N  1 Q (T )  a F 
Qi (T F ) N  i i

2
 1  a i 

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Credit VaR (page 517-519)

Can be defined analogously to Market Risk

VaR
A T-year credit VaR with an X% confidence
is the loss level that we are X% confident
will not be exceeded over T years

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 Calculation from a Factor-Based
Gaussian Copula Model (equation 22.15,
page 517)

Consider a large portfolio of loans, each of

which has a probability of Q(T) of defaulting
by time T. Suppose that all pairwise copula
correlations are so that all ai’s are
We are X% certain that F is less than N-1(1−X)
= −N-1(X)
It follows that the VaR is

 N  1 Q(T )   N  1 ( X ) 
V ( X , T ) N  
 1  

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Basel II
The internal ratings based approach uses
the Gaussian copula model to calculate the
99.9% worst case default rate for a portfolio
This is multiplied by the loss given default
(=1−Rec Rate), the expected exposure at
default, and a maturity adjustment to give
the capital required

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CreditMetrics (page 517-519)
Calculates credit VaR by considering
possible rating transitions
A Gaussian copula model is used to define
the correlation between the ratings
transitions of different companies

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