BRAIN AND SPINAL

CORD
 INTRODUCTION
• The brain is one of the largest and most complex
organs in the human body
• It is made up of more than billions of nerves that
communicate in trillions of connections called
synapses.

• The brain is surrounded by a layer of tissue called

the meninges. The skull (cranium) helps protect the
brain from injury.
 ANATOMICAL DIVISION
• The forebrain : is made up of cerebrum, thalamus,
hypothalamus and pineal gland.

• The midbrain located near the very center of the

brain is composed of a portion of the brainstem.

• The hindbrain consists of the remaining brainstem

as well as our cerebellum, pons and medulla.
 PARTS OF BRAIN

Consists of :
 Cerebrum
 Limbic system
 Basal ganglia
 Brain stem
 CEREBRUM
• The cerebrum or cortex is the largest part of the
human brain, associated with higher brain function
such as thought , processing information from five
senses.
• The cerebrum is divided into a right and left
hemisphere which are connected by axons that relay
messages from one to the other.
• The surface of the cerebrum has a folded appearance
called the cortex.
• The folding of the cortex increases the brain’s
surface area allowing more neurons to fit inside the
skull and enabling higher functions.

• Each fold is called a gyrus, and each groove

between folds is called a sulcus.
cerebrum

spinal cord cerebellum

Acknowledgement: Picture of model from Mentone Educational Centre C15

Divided into two hemispheres
• Right Hemisphere : The right hemisphere controls
the left side of the body
• Left Hemisphere : The left hemisphere controls
the right side of the body
• Corpus Callosum : Communication between the
left and right hemispheres of the brain
Delivers messages from one side to the other.
• The cortex contains about billions of nerve cells.
• Gray matter: The nerve cell bodies color the cortex
grey-brown , outer
• White matter : Beneath the cortex formed by long
connecting fibers between neurons
• The cerebrum is covered by a sheet of neural tissue
known as the cerebral cortex

• The cerebral cortex is divided into four sections,

called "lobes":
 Frontal lobe
 Parietal lobe
 Occipital lobe
 Temporal lobe
FUNCTIOS OF PARTS OF BRAIN
• Frontal Lobe : consists of different functional areas
 Prefrontal area: The ability to concentrate and
attend, elaboration of thought, judgement, behaviour
etc.
 Motor Cortex (Brodman's): voluntary motor
activity.
 Premotor Cortex: storage of motor patterns and
voluntary activities, coordination of complex
movements
 Motor speech area : language
• Parietal Lobe : processing of sensory input, Body
orientation (proprioception)
• Occipital Lobe : Primary visual reception and
association
• Temporal Lobe : Auditory reception and
interpretation, information retrieval
LOCALIZATION OF FUNCTION
• Information from each sense (eyes, ears, etc.)
reaches the cerebral cortex first and most
directly at its own specialized areas called
its primary sensory cortex
• The visual pathway from the eyes projects
(makes connections) most directly to
the primary visual cortex on the occipital
lobe at the back of the brain.
• The auditory pathway from the ear projects most
directly to the primary auditory cortex on the top
edge of the temporal lobe.
• The somatosensory (soma = body) or touch
pathways project most directly to the primary
somatosensory cortex on the front edge of
the parietal lobe.
• The most direct pathways from the cortex to motor
neurons in spinal cord arise from the primary
motor cortex – initiation of voluntary movements
 LIMBIC SYSTEM
 The limbic system contains glands which help relay
emotions.

 The limbic system includes :

• Amygdala
• Hippocampus
• Hypothalamus
• Thalamus
 BASAL GANGLIA
• Processing link between thalamus and motor cortex.

• Initiation and direction of voluntary movement.

Balance (inhibitory), Postural reflexes.

• Automatic movement
• Amygdala : neural centers in the limbic system
Responsible for the response and memory of
emotions, especially fear
• Hippocampus : a structure in the limbic system
linked to memory
• Thalamus : relays messages between lower brain
centers and cerebral cortex
• Hypothalamus : controls maintenance functions
such as eating; helps govern endocrine system;
linked to emotion and reward and body temperature.
 Pituitary gland -
• Lies in a small pocket of bone at the skull base
called the sella turcica.
• Connected to hypothalamus by the pituitary stalk
• Endocrine functions
 Pineal gland -
• Is located behind the third ventricle.
• It helps regulate the body’s internal clock and
circadian rhythms by secreting melatonin.
 BRAIN STEM
• All basic life functions originate in the brain stem :
including heartbeat, blood pressure and breathing
• Present underneath the limbic system

• The brain stem consists of :

• Midbrain
• Pons
• Medulla.
 MIDBRAIN
• Also known as the mesencephalon

• Help regulate body movement, vision and hearing.

• Transfer messages from the cerebral cortex down

the brain stem, which allows voluntary motor
function to take place.
 PONS
• This portion is located in the hindbrain
• Links to the cerebellum to help with posture and
movement.
• It helps relay messages from the cortex and the
cerebellum.
• The pons also creates the level of consciousness
necessary for sleep.
 MEDULLA
• The medulla or medulla oblongata is an essential
portion of the brain stem

• Maintains vital body functions such as the heart

rate, swallowing and breathing.
 CEREBELLUM

• At the base and the back of the brain.

• The cerebellum controls essential body functions

such as balance, posture and coordination.
• Extremely important for being able to perform
everyday voluntary tasks such as walking and
writing. It is also essential to being able to stay
balanced and upright.
 MENINGES
• Are the membranes that envelop the central nervous
system
• Present beneath the skull
• From outside out meninges consist of three layers :
 Dura mater
 Arachnoid mater
 Pia mater
 DURA MATER
• Is made up of two tough bluish membranes.
• Outer layer : endosteal layer, which lies closest to
the skull
• Inner layer - the dura, lines the entire inside of the
skull and creates folds in which parts of the brain
are protected.
• Falx : separates the right and left half of the brain.
• Tentorium : separates the cerebral hemispheres from
the midbrain, brainstem and cerebellum.
 ARACHNOID MATER
• Beneath the dura is the arachnoid.
• Spider web-like appearance
• This thin membrane covers the entire brain and is
made up of delicate, elastic tissue and blood vessels.
• The space between the dura and the arachnoid is
known as the subdural space
 PIA MATER
• The pia mater is a very delicate membrane.
• It is the meningeal envelope that firmly adheres to
the surface of the brain and spinal cord
• The pia mater is pierced by blood vessels to the
brain and spinal cord, and its capillaries nourish the
brain
• The space between the arachnoid and pia is the
subarachnoid space, through which cerebrospinal
fluid flows.
 CEREBROSPINAL FLUID
• Brain is cushioned with a watery fluid known as
cerebrospinal fluid (CSF).
• CSF is manufactured from blood by a special
membrane known as choroid plexus within the four
ventricles of the brain
• Flows through the ventricular system to the the spine
and subarachnoid space, providing essential nutrients
and carrying away waste products.
• Reabsorbed into blood stream by arachnoid villi.
• The primary function of the meninges and of the
cerebrospinal fluid is to protect the central
nervous system.
 SPINAL CORD
• Long, thin, tubular bundle of nervous tissue that
extends from the medulla oblongata in the brainstem
• The spinal cord begins at the occipital bone and
extends down to the space between the first and
second lumbar vertebrae
• It does not extend the entire length of the vertebral
column
• The spinal cord functions primarily in the
transmission of neural signals between the brain and
the rest of the body
 FUNCTIONS OF SPINAL CORD

The spinal cord has three major functions:

• As a conduit for motor information, which travels

down the spinal cord
• As a conduit for sensory information in the reverse
direction
• As a center for coordinating certain reflexes.
 STRUCTURE
• “H” shaped on cross section

• Hollow central cavity (“central canal”)

• Gray matter surrounds cavity

• White matter surrounds gray matter

• White matter : ascending and descending tracts

• Columns of gray matter running the length of the
spinal cord. It contains :
– Posterior (dorsal) horns
– Anterior (ventral) horns

• Lateral horns in thoracic and superior lumbar cord

• Posterior median sulcus
• Anterior median fissure
Dorsal (posterior)

Ventral (anterior)
 SPINAL CORD SEGMENTS

• Divided into 31 different segments

• At every segment, right and left pairs of spinal
nerves (mixed; sensory and motor) form.
• The ventral (motor) and dorsal (sensory) roots
combine to form spinal nerves (mixed; motor and
sensory), one on each side of the spinal cord.
• Spinal nerves, with the exception of C1 and C2,
form inside intervertebral foramen (IVF).
 SPINAL NERVE

• 31 pairs attach through dorsal and ventral nerve

roots

• Lie in intervertebral foramina

• The spinal cord is divided into cervical, thoracic,

and lumbar regions.
• The cervical region is divided into eight levels
that are related to different motor and sensory
functions in the neck and the arms.
• The spinal nerves of the thoracic region supply
the thorax and abdomen.
• The nerves of the lumbosacral spinal cord
supply the pelvic region, legs, and feet.
• Within the spinal cord there is no obvious
segmentation but, for convenience, the naming of
spinal nerves is based on the segment in which they
are located.
• There are 8 pairs of cervical nerves (C1–C8), 12
pairs of thoracic nerves (T1–T12), 5 pairs of
lumbar nerves (L1–L5), 5 pairs of sacral nerves
(S1–S5), and 1 pair of coccygeal nerves (Co1).
• It is made of 31 segments from which branch one
pair of sensory nerve roots and one pair of motor
nerve roots.
• The nerve roots then merge into bilaterally
symmetrical pairs of spinal nerves.
• Each spinal nerve is formed from the combination
of nerve fibers from its posterior and anterior roots.
• The posterior root is the sensory (afferent) root that
carries sensory information to the brain from other
areas of the body.
• The anterior root is the motor (efferent) root that
carries motor information to the body from the
brain.
• The swelling found in the posterior root is the
posterior (dorsal) root ganglion, which contains the
cell bodies of sensory neurons.
• The anterior (ventral) root contains axons of motor
neurons that conduct nerve impulses from the CNS
to other parts of the body such as the muscles.
• Each segment of the spinal cord is associated with a
pair of ganglia called dorsal root ganglia, which are
situated just outside of the spinal cord and contain
cell bodies of sensory neurons. These neurons travel
into the spinal cord via the dorsal roots.
• Ventral roots consist of axons from motor neurons,
which bring information to the periphery from cell
bodies within the CNS.
• Dorsal roots and ventral roots come together and
exit the intervertebral foramina as they become
spinal nerves.
• Inferior to the lumbar enlargement, the spinal cord
terminates as a narrowing, conical structure called
the conus medullaris, which ends at the level of the
intervertebral disc between the first and second
lumbar vertebrae in adults.
• Arising from the conus medullaris is the filum
terminale, an extension of the pia mater that extends
inferiorly and blends with the arachnoid mater and
dura mater and anchors the spinal cord to the
coccyx.
 SPINAL CORD TRACTS
• The motor tracts can be functionally divided into
two major groups:
• Pyramidal tracts
• Extrapyramidal tracts

• Commissural fibers: crossing from one side of cord

to the other
• Most pathways cross (or decussate) at some point
 PYRAMIDAL TRACTS
• These tracts originate in the cerebral cortex,
carrying motor fibers to the spinal cord and brain
stem.

• They are responsible for the voluntary control of the

musculature of the body and face.

• Corticospinal Tract : Lateral and Ventral

Corticospinal
 EXTRAPYRAMIDAL TRACTS
• These tracts originate in the brain stem, carrying
motor fibres to the spinal cord.

• They are responsible for the involuntary and

automatic control of all musculature, such as muscle
tone, balance, posture and locomotion
 ASCENDING TRACTS
• Transmit sensory information from the sensory
receptors to higher levels of the CNS.

• Spinocerebellar :
• Dorsal column :
• Spinothalamic :
 TYPES OF ASCENDING TRACTS
• Spinothalamic tracts
– Lateral
• pain & temperature
– Anterior
• light touch & pressure
• Spinoolivary tract
• Spinoreticular tract
• Spinotectal
• Spinocerrebellar tract
– posture & coordination
 DESCENDING TRACTS
• At the termination of the descending tracts, the
neurones synapse with a lower motor neurone.
• Thus, all the neurones within the descending motor
system are classed as upper motor neurones.
• Their cell bodies are found in the cerebral cortex or
the brain stem, with their axons remaining within
the CNS.
• Corticobulbar tracts – supplies the musculature of
the head and neck.

• Vestibulospinal and reticulospinal : tracts do not

decussate, providing ipsilateral innervation.

• The Rubrospinal and tectospinal : tracts do

decussate, and therefore provide contralateral
innervation