Cell Cycle
Cells divide and reproduce in two
ways: mitosis and meiosis. Mitosis is a
process of cell division that results in
two genetically identical daughter cells
developing from a single parent cell.
Meiosis, on the other hand, is the
division of a germ cell involving two
fissions of the nucleus and giving rise
to four gametes, or sex cells, each
possessing half the number
of chromosomes of the original cell.
Mitosis is used by single-celled
organisms to reproduce; it is also used
for the organic growth of tissues,
fibers, and membranes.
Meiosis is found in sexual reproduction
of organisms. The male and female sex
cells (i.e., egg and sperm) are the end
result of meiosis; they combine to
create new, genetically different
offspring.
Both begin with one diploid
Both stages end with cytokinesis
parent cell
Bothconsist of multiple stages including:
interphase, prophase, metaphase, anaphase,
telophase and cytokinesis
Both stages duplicate the DNA
Both stages condense the DNA into chromosomes
Bothrequire the chromosomes to be pulled apart
by a centrosome (1 or 2 centrioles)
Bothare pulled apart by spindle fibres formed
from the centrosome
Overall Comparison:
Meiosis and mitosis are both
needed by cells and
organisms to survive,
although the names and
processes are quite similar
there are some differences.
Is cell cycle regulation
important?
Cell cycle regulation is
important for all organisms.
Different genes control the cell
cycle to make sure errors do not
occur. If something goes wrong
with regulation, cancer and
other disease can develop.
Mitosis and Cancer
DNA,sometimes called a genetic blueprint,
contains the hereditary material in nearly all
organisms.
The improper copying of DNA produces two types
of errors, or mutations. Silent mutations have no
impact on the DNA sequence, but missense
mutations, which alter amino acid sequences, often
impact the associated function. Missense
mutations can multiply over time, leading to cell
cycle disruption and the formation of tumors,
which are the product of runaway cell reproduction
Cancer occurs when mutated
cells ignore or override the
normal "checkpoints" regulating
mitosis and begin to reproduce
uncontrollably.
Tumors can either be benign
(non-cancerous) or malignant
(cancerous).
Benign tumors grow locally and do
not spread. As a result, benign
tumors are not considered cancer.
They can still be dangerous,
especially if they press against
vital organs like the brain.
Example is mole-a benign
proliferation of melanocytes.
Malignant tumors have
the ability to spread and
invade other tissues. This
process, known as
metastasis, is a key
feature of cancer.
Chromosomal
Abnormalities
-occur when there is a significant change in the
number or structure of chromosomes in a person’s
cells. This can include deletions, duplications,
inversions, or translocations of chromosome parts.
- Chromosomes are the structures within cells that
carry genetic information, so changes in
chromosomes can affect many aspects of
development and bodily functions.
Chromosom
al
Abnormaliti
es
Can Be
Inherited
An abnormal chromosome
number is sometimes
traceable
to
nondisjunction
Polyploidy - a eukaryote has three or more
complete sets of chromosomes
Aneuploidy - an organism has more or less
than the normal number of chromosomes
Monosomy only one of a type of chromosome
Trisomy three of a type of chromosome
An abnormal chromosome number
is sometimes traceable
to nondisjunction
Nondisjunction - in meiosis I
homologues do not separate and both go
into the same daughter cell, or in meiosis
II sister chromatids fail to separate and
both daughter chromosomes go to the
same gamete
Theprocess of mitosis generates
identical daughter cells by
arranging chromosomes into two
equal groups. When the process
occurs normally, chromosomes
attach to string-like spindles and
begin to move to the middle of
each daughter cell.
Ifchromosomes fail to attach to
these spindles, however, a
daughter cell might have an extra
copy of a chromosome after the
cell divides, or it might be
missing one. Scientists refer to
the condition whereby cells have
an incorrect number of
chromosome as aneuploidy
Figure 3. A Nondisjunction of chromosomes during
meiosis I of oogenesis, followed by fertilization with
normal sperm
Figure 8.17B Nondisjunction of chromosomes during
meiosis II of oogenesis, followed by fertilization with
normal sperm
Abnormal chromosome numbers
cause syndromes
Trisomy 21 (Down Syndrome)
Over90% of individuals with Down syndrome have
three copies of chromosome 21
Abnormal Sex Chromosome Inheritance
Turner syndrome females are born with only a
single X chromosome
A male with Klinefelter syndrome has two or more
X chromosomes in addition to a Y chromosome
Abnormal chromosome
structure also causes
syndromes
Various agents in the environment, such as radiation,
certain organic chemicals, or viruses, can cause
chromosomes to break
Deletion - an end of a chromosome breaks off or two
simultaneous breaks lead to the loss of an internal segment
Duplication - the presence of a particular chromosome
segment more than once in the same chromosome
Inversion - a segment of a chromosome is turned 180
degrees
Translocation - the movement of a chromosome segment
from one chromosome to another nonhomologous
chromosome
Figure 8.19
Types of
chromosomal
mutations
Connecting the Concepts:
Allcells receive DNA from preexisting cells
through the process of cell division
Mitosis is part of the cell cycle, and there are
negative consequences if the cell cycle comes
out of synchronization
Meiosis is part of the production of gametes,
which have half the number of chromosomes as
the parent cell
Sexual reproduction increases genetic
variability
Chromosomal
Disorders
What are chromosomes?
Humans have 23 pairs of
chromosomes, with one
chromosome from each
parent. The chromosomes
are coiled up DNA. Under
normal conditions all of
the chromosomes are
inherited in tact.
T his
is
huma a normal
n k
karyo chromos aryotype
t o of
chrom ype is a p mes. A
ic
at an osomes li ture of
d co m ne
pare. d up to lo
Down
Syndrome:
Trisomy
1 in 1,250 births
47 chromosomes
XY or XX
#21 Trisomy
Nondisjunction
Down Syndrome
Short, broad hands
Stubby fingers
Rough skin
Impotency in males
Mentally retarded
Small round face
Protruding tongue
Short lifespan
VSD
Turners Syndrome
1 in 5,000 births
45 chromosomes X
only
#23 Monosomy
Nondisjunction
96-98% do not survive to birth
No menstruation
No breast development
Narrow hips
Broad shoulders and neck
Underdeveloped ovaries, oviducts & uterus
Low to normal intelligence
Klinefelter Syndrome
1 in 1,100 births
47 chromosomes
XXY only
#23 Trisomy
Nondisjunction
Scarce beard
Longer fingers and arms
Sterile
Delicate skin
Low mental ability
Normal lifespan
Poly X-female Syndrome
1 in 1, 000 female births
47 chromosomes
XXX only
#23 Trisomy
Nondisjunction
Delayed language
development
With more 3Xs,
severely mentally retarded
Regular
menstruation
Jacob’s Syndrome
1 in 1, 000 male births
47 chromosomes
XYY only
#23 Trisomy
Nondisjunction
Tall, persistent acne,
With speech & reading
problems
Below average intelligence
fertile
Cri-Du-Chat Syndrome
1 in 216,000 births
46 chromosomes
#5Deletion of lower
arm
Symptoms:
Moon-shaped
face
Heart disease
Mentally
retarded
Malformed
Aniridia-Wilms Tumor
Syndrome
1 in 50,000,000 births
46 chromosomes
XY or XX
Symptoms:
#11 Deletion of upper
arm Mentally
retarded
Growth
retarded
Blindness
Tumors on
kidneys
Short lifespan
Thirteen Q Deletion Syndrome
1 in 500,000
births Mentally retarded
Deformed face
46 chromosomesNo thumbs
XY or XX Heart disease
Short lifespan
#13 Deletion of
lower arm
Prader-Willi Syndrome
1 in 5,000,000 births
46 chromosomes
XY=97%
XX=3%
#15 Deletion of lower arm
Small bird-like head
Mentally retarded
Respiratory problems
Obesity
Short lifespan
Eighteen Q Deletion Syndrome
1 in 10,000,000 births
46 chromosomes
XY or XX
#18 Deletion of lower arm
Mentally retarded
Heart disease
Abnormal hands and
feet
Large eyes
Large ears
Normal lifespan
Patau’s Trisomy Syndrome
1 in 14,000
births
47 chromosomes
XY or XX
#13 Trisomy
Nondisjunction
Small head
Small or missing eyes
Heart defects
Extra fingers
Abnormal genitalia
Mentally retarded
Cleft palate
Most die a few weeks after birth
Other Types of
Inherited Genetic
Disorder…
Sex-linked: X chromosome
Duchenne Muscular
Dystrophy
1 boy in every 3,000
progressive
weakening of
muscles and loss of
coordination
more common in
males
Autosomal
Dominant
Huntington’s
incidence:
late onset
1/10,000 in U.S.
may not show
nervoussystem symptoms until past
degenerates reproductive age
Cell Mutation
Cell mutations within an
individual are not always
uniform; some cells may have a
mutant version of a gene while
others have the normal version
of the same gene. Geneticists
refer to this condition as
mosaicism.
Mosaicism is a condition in which cells
within the same person have a
different genetic makeup. Mosaicism
may be caused by an error in mitosis.
In somatic cells, or cells other than
egg or sperm cells, the individual may
not be affected by the mutations, but
if the mutant genotype is widespread
and harmful enough, the mutation can
have a major impact.
Two examples of diseases
linked to mosaicism;
Marfansyndrome,
Hemophilia, a which produces
blood-clotting unusually long
disorder. limbs.
Cell-Cycle Alteration
The consequence of cell-cycle
alterations is loss of cells, and
this phenomenon has been
postulated as a mechanism of
pathogenesis in several
neurodegenerative disorders.
Neurodegenerative diseases are
incurable and debilitating
conditions that result in
progressive degeneration and /
or death of nerve cells. This
causes problems with movement
(called ataxias), or mental
functioning (called dementias).
Examples of Neurodegenerative
disorders:
Alzheimer'sdisease is a progressive
disorder that causes brain cells to
waste away (degenerate) and die.
Alzheimer's disease is the most
common cause of dementia — a
continuous decline in thinking,
behavioral and social skills that
disrupts a person's ability to function
independently.
Examples of Neurodegenerative
disorders:
Parkinson's disease is caused
by a loss of nerve cells in the
part of the brain called the
substantia nigra. Nerve cells
in this part of the brain are
responsible for producing a
chemical called dopamine.
Group Report/ Presentation
1. Cell membrane structure & function
2. Passive transport
3. Active transport
4. Photosynthesis- raw
5. Photosynthesis- light reaction
6. Photosynthesis- dark reaction
7. Aerobic Respiration
8. Anaerobic Respiration
