School of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering

(SMME)

Internal Combustion Engines

Course Code ME-439

VALVE TIMING AND

SYSTEMS IN SI &CI
ENGINES
LECTURE 8 Engr Mohammad Ikhlaq Khattak
ikhlaq@[Link].pk1
 Introduction
Internal Combustion Engines – SI & CI
Valve timing diagram Forced Induction
Exhaust Emissions and their control
Alternative Engine Design Concepts

• Internal Combustion
Engines – SI & CI
– Air-Standard and Fuel-Air
cycles
– Performance criteria
– Gas exchange processes
– SI Engine combustion and
performance
– IC engine modeling
– Diesel engine performance
characteristics
– The limited pressure cycle Page 2 of 109
 Valve Timing
Valve timing diagram
(2NZ-FE engine without VVT-i, leaded gasoline type)
TDC
Compression stroke Valve overlap Intake stroke

Intake valve 2 2
In. Ex. opens In. Ex.

Exhaust
valve closes
Exhaust Combustion
Exhaust stroke valve (power) stroke
opens

In. Ex. In. Ex.

Intake
valve
closes
43 34
BDC

(1/2)
 Introduction
Internal Combustion Engines – SI & CI
Engine cycles Forced Induction
Exhaust Emissions and their control
Alternative Engine Design Concepts

Page 4
 Firing Order
The firing order is the sequence of power delivery of each cylinder in a multi-cylinder
reciprocating engine. ([Link]

number firing order example

of
cylinders

3 1-2-3 Saab 2-stroke

1-3-2 BMW k75, Suzuki mehran
4 1-3-4-2 Most straight-4s
1-2-4-3 Some British Ford and Riley engines, Ford Kent engine, Riley Nine
1-3-2-4 Subaru 4-cylinder engines, Yamaha R1 crossplane
1-4-3-2 Volkswagen air-cooled engine

6 1-5-3-6-2-4 Mercedes-Benz M104 engine, Volkswagen VR6 engine

1-4-3-6-2-5 Mercedes-Benz M272 engine, Volkswagen V6’s (90-degree V6's)
1-6-5-4-3-2 GM 3800 engine, Rover KV6 engine
1-2-3-4-5-6 General Motors 60° V6 engine, Mazda JE 3.0 litre 60-degree V6 engine,
1-4-2-5-3-6 Ford Cologne V6 engine, Ford Essex V6 engine (UK)
1-6-3-2-5-4 Subaru Alcyone/XT-6/Vortex ER-27 Flat-6
1-6-2-4-3-5 Porsche Boxster Flat-6
1-6-2-5-3-4 Maserati Quattroporte IV V6-4AC-24
Page 5
 Introduction
Internal Combustion Engines – SI & CI
Forced Induction
Exhaust Emissions and their control
Alternative Engine Design Concepts

• Air-Standard and Fuel-Air cycles

– In case of the air-standard cycle, the working fluid is
considered to be a perfect gas and all equations governing
perfect gas properties are used.
• Cp and Cv are considered constant whatever the temperature and
pressure of the working fluid
• For SI engines, heat addition is at constant volume, while for the
CI engines, heat addition is at constant pressure
– In case of the fuel-air cycle, the properties of fuel are included
in the analysis of engine cycles.
• The unburned mixture is considered to be frozen in composition
• The burned gas mixture is considered to be in equilibrium.
• Values for each of these gases are available in charts and
computer programs
Page 6 of 109
 Introduction
Internal Combustion Engines – SI & CI
Forced Induction
Exhaust Emissions and their control
Alternative Engine Design Concepts

• Ideal models of engine processes

Process Assumption
Compression (1- 1. Adiabatic and reversible
2) (isentropic)

Combustion (2-3) 1. Adiabatic

2. Combustion at
a. dV=0
b. dP=0
c. dV=0 & dP=0
3. Combustion complete

Expansion (3-4) 1. Adiabatic and reversible

(reversible)

Exhaust (4-5-6) & 1. Adiabatic

Intake (6-7-1) 2. Valve events occur at TDC &
BDC
3. dVcyl=0
4. dPin =0 & dPexh=0
5. Velocity effects negligible

Page 7 of 109
 Introduction
Internal Combustion Engines – SI & CI
Forced Induction
Exhaust Emissions and their control
Alternative Engine Design Concepts

• Performance criteria
– Review of operating characteristics of common types
of ICEs
– Influence of basic operating principles on the
performance, emissions and efficiency of real engines
– Provide data and explanation of actual engine
operating characteristics

Page 8 of 109
 Introduction
Internal Combustion Engines – SI & CI
Forced Induction
Exhaust Emissions and their control
Alternative Engine Design Concepts

• Power and torque

• Power
P MEP Ap V p 4 4 stroke cycle

P MEP Ap V p 2 2 stroke cycle

• Where Visp the mean piston speed:

V p S N / 30

• Torque is given by:

 MEP Vs 4  4 stroke cycle
 MEP Vs 2  2 stroke cycle

Page 9 of 109
 Introduction
Internal Combustion Engines – SI & CI
Forced Induction
Exhaust Emissions and their control
Alternative Engine Design Concepts

• MEP – Mean Effective Pressure

MEP  f  v QHV  a ,i F A 4 stroke cycle
MEP  f tr QHV  a ,i F A 2 stroke cycle

• SFC – Specific Fuel Consumption

1
SFC 
 f Qhv

Page 10 of 109
 Operating variables that affect SI Introduction
Internal Combustion Engines – SI & CI
engine performance, efficiency and Forced Induction
Exhaust Emissions and their control
emissions: Alternative Engine Design Concepts

• Spark timing
• Maximum Brake Torque is
maximised with ignition timing
• As seen, 1% variation in MBT for
~10° ignition timing variation
• Emissions depend a lot on ignition
timing – timing is kept retarded
for 1% to 2% reduction in MBT
• Speed increase – timing advanced
• Load increase – timing retarded
Page 11 of 109
 Operating variables that affect SI Introduction
Internal Combustion Engines – SI & CI
engine performance, efficiency and Forced Induction
Exhaust Emissions and their control
emissions: Alternative Engine Design Concepts

• Mixture composition
• For optimal emissions control, need
stoichiometric AFR
• 3-way catalytic convertor needs a
stoichiometric mixture
• To reduce pumping losses, stratified
injection may be used. Problem of
emissions control, combustion.
Necessitating at times multiple
ignition sources
• For maximum power, high flame
speed needed, best power at
equivalence ratio of 1.1 Page 12 of 109
 Operating variables that affect SI Introduction
Internal Combustion Engines – SI & CI
engine performance, efficiency and Forced Induction
Exhaust Emissions and their control
emissions: Alternative Engine Design Concepts

• Mixture composition

Page 13 of 109
 Operating variables that affect SI Introduction
Internal Combustion Engines – SI & CI
engine performance, efficiency and Forced Induction
Exhaust Emissions and their control
emissions: Alternative Engine Design Concepts

• Fast burn time:

• Given by Δθb
• Time taken (in seconds or
crank angle degrees) for 90%
combustion of intake air/fuel
charge
Engine type Speed t90% (ms)
(RPM)
Passenger car idle 500 17
Passenger car full power 4000 2
F1 car at full N 19000 .4
Page 14 of 109
 Operating variables that affect SI Introduction
Internal Combustion Engines – SI & CI
engine performance, efficiency and Forced Induction
Exhaust Emissions and their control
emissions: Alternative Engine Design Concepts

• Exhaust gas recycling (EGR):

• Rerouting of part of exhaust gases into intake
• Reduces pumping losses
• Reduces NOx production rates by increasing thermal inertia
• HC rates increase
• No appreciable influence on CO production

Page 15 of 109
 Operating variables that affect SI Introduction
Internal Combustion Engines – SI & CI
engine performance, efficiency and Forced Induction
Exhaust Emissions and their control
emissions: Alternative Engine Design Concepts

• Load and speed:

• Map obtained using fuel consumption measurement
system and dynamometer
• By using mean piston speed and BMEP, the
performance map may be generalised to a great
degree
• Maximum BMEP is somewhere in the middle of the
rev range
• Minimum BSFC is at a slightly lower RPM range than
Max BMEP
• These maps are a translation of ηv, ηf, & ηm
• Max BMEP = Max ηv
• ηm decreases as mean piston speed increases
• ηf increases with mean piston speed as heat transfers
Page 16 of 109
become less significant
 Operating variables that affect SI Introduction
Internal Combustion Engines – SI & CI
engine performance, efficiency and Forced Induction
Exhaust Emissions and their control
emissions: Alternative Engine Design Concepts

• Compression ratio:
• Higher the compression ratio, higher the theoretical ηf
• In real case, combustion stability, heat transfer,
volumetric efficiency, friction also influence efficiency
• Dynamic compression ratio is different than static
compression ratio because valve events, flow
phenomena, change in engine part dimensions etc.
• Compression ratio limited by knock
• Graphic shows 5.3 litre v8 at WOT and 2000 RPM
• ηm remained at 89% and ηv at 82.5%
• BMEP and IMEP rise to 17 then drop
– Increase in S/V ratio
– Formation of crevices in combustion chamber
– Slower combustion
Page 17 of 109
 Introduction
Internal Combustion Engines – SI & CI
Forced Induction
Exhaust Emissions and their control
Alternative Engine Design Concepts

• Gas exchange processes

– Examination of flow of air, fuel and exhaust through
an internal combustion engine
– Fundamentals of the intake and exhaust processes for
4 stroke engines
– Fundamentals of scavenging for 2 stroke engines
– Introduction to various fuel delivery systems

Page 18 of 109
 Introduction
Internal Combustion Engines – SI & CI
Forced Induction
Exhaust Emissions and their control
Alternative Engine Design Concepts

• Valve flow
• At WOT (Wide-Open Throttle) the most significant resistance to airflow in
an ICE is via the intake and exhaust valves. The mass flow rate through a
valve is given by:
12
 2  P   1 
2
 Pv  
m c f  o Av co   v     
   1   Po   Po  


Po = upstream stagnation pressure, Pv = valve static pressure (Pcyl for subsonic),
ρo = stagnation density, co = , Av = valve area, cf = flow coefficient

Po    1   1
Flow chokes when Pv  2  1.9 mass flow rate becomes independent of P
v
 
  1
 2  2   1   Po   2  2   1
m ch c f  o Av co   c f Av  
   1   
R  To     1 
Page 19 of 109
 Introduction
Internal Combustion Engines – SI & CI
Forced Induction
Exhaust Emissions and their control
Alternative Engine Design Concepts

• Valve flow
A1 dl Pv = pressure at A1 or A2
 2
A2  d Pc = cylinder pressure
4
l = valve lift
d = valve diameter
flow coefficient (cf) = effective flow area (Af)
valve seat area (A2)
disch. coefficient (cd) = effective flow area (Af)
valve curtain area (A1)

Page 20 of 109
 Introduction
Internal Combustion Engines – SI & CI
Forced Induction
Exhaust Emissions and their control
Alternative Engine Design Concepts

• Flow coefficient measurement

Set: Av
Measure: mi, Ti, Pi
Calculate: cf

1 2
 1 
m  2   Pv  
2
 Pv  
cf       
 o Av co    1   Po   Po  
  

Page 21 of 109
 Introduction
Internal Combustion Engines – SI & CI
Forced Induction
Exhaust Emissions and their control
Alternative Engine Design Concepts

• Valve sizing
In order to avoid choked flow, the intake valves are sized based on:
2
U 
p max
Av 1.3B 
ci

Where Avis the average valve area, B is the cylinder bore, isUthe
p average
piston velocity at max engine speed, is the speed ci of sound of gas in the intake
port.
Exhaust valves can be smaller since the speed of sound in exhaust gases is
much higher.
Since there is limited space for valves, it is common practice to have multiple
intake and exhaust valves per cylinder.

Page 22 of 109
 Introduction
Internal Combustion Engines – SI & CI
Forced Induction
Exhaust Emissions and their control
Alternative Engine Design Concepts

• Valve sizing
For a flat combustion chamber, valve sizing for 2, 3 & 4 valve head
would be:

Page 23 of 109
 Introduction
Internal Combustion Engines – SI & CI
Forced Induction
Exhaust Emissions and their control
Alternative Engine Design Concepts

• Valve sizing
To increase ratio of Av / Ap (up to 0.5), valves are inclined and the
combustion chamber is hemispherical or wedge shaped:

Page 24 of 109
 Introduction
Internal Combustion Engines – SI & CI
Forced Induction
Exhaust Emissions and their control
Alternative Engine Design Concepts

• Valve sizing
Double OverHead Camshafts are generally used to increase number of
valves per cylinder. It may in some case be done via SingleOHC as well

Page 25 of 109
 Introduction
Internal Combustion Engines – SI & CI
Forced Induction
Exhaust Emissions and their control
Alternative Engine Design Concepts

• Valve opening and closing

In thermodynamic cycles, it is assumed that valves open and close instantaneously.
In reality, a cam is used to progressively open and close the valves, the lobes of
which are profiled to provide smooth motion without acceleration spikes

Page 26 of 109
 Introduction
Internal Combustion Engines – SI & CI
Forced Induction
Exhaust Emissions and their control
Alternative Engine Design Concepts

• Valve overlap
In real engines, to ensure that the valve is fully open during a stroke (and
ensure a ηv), the valves are open for more than 180°
The exhaust valve opens before BDC and closes after TDC
The intake valve opens before TDC and closes after BDC
At TDC there is valve overlap where both intake and exhaust valves are open

TDC BDC BDC TDC BDC Page 27 of 109

 Introduction
Internal Combustion Engines – SI & CI
Forced Induction
Exhaust Emissions and their control
Alternative Engine Design Concepts

• Valve overlap
When the intake valve opens before TDC (BTDC), the cylinder pressure is roughly at P e
Part throttle (Pi<Pe): Residual gases flow into the intake port. Residual gas is first re-introduced
into the cylinder , then fresh charge is added. Performance akin to EGR.
WOT (Pi=Pe): Some fresh air / fuel charge may go out of the exhaust while scavenging residual
gases. Power is increased, along with emissions.
Supercharged (Pi>Pe): Fresh gas can flow out of the exhaust valve during scavenging process.

Page 28 of 109
 Introduction
Internal Combustion Engines – SI & CI
Forced Induction
Exhaust Emissions and their control
Alternative Engine Design Concepts

• Valve timing

@ 1000 RPM intake duration: 230° = 38.4ms

@ 2500 RPM: 230° = 15.4ms
@ 5000 RPM: 230° = 7.7ms, 285° = 9.5ms
Page 29 of 109
 Introduction
Internal Combustion Engines – SI & CI
Forced Induction
Exhaust Emissions and their control
Alternative Engine Design Concepts

• Valve timing
Overlap
15°
65°

At high engine speeds, less time is available for the gas exchange process, hence
greater crank angles allow better exchange – greater VE – larger valve overlap
At low engine speeds and part throttle operation, less overlap is required and
may be reduced by changing the intake valve opening crank angle duration
Variable Valve Timing (VVT) allows timing to be adjusted for engine speed and
load
Variable Valve Lift (VVL) allows increase in valve flow are thus increasing flow
without increasing overlap. Helpful in high RPM / load situations

Page 30 of 109
 Introduction
Internal Combustion Engines – SI & CI
Forced Induction
Exhaust Emissions and their control
Alternative Engine Design Concepts

• Honda Variable valve Timing and Electronic lift

Control (VTEC™)
SOHC. Intake valves have three cam lobes, two that operate the valves at low-RPM, and
a third that takes over at high RPM / load (~2500 – 4500 RPM)
Low RPM – the two rocker arms operate the valves at low lift / duration profiles
High RPM – one centre lobe is locked via a hydraulically activated pin, and the intake
valves are then on a high-lift / duration cam profile.

Page 31 of 109
 Introduction
Internal Combustion Engines – SI & CI
Forced Induction
Exhaust Emissions and their control
Alternative Engine Design Concepts

• Honda Variable valve Timing and Electronic lift

Control (VTEC™)

Low RPM – the two rocker arms High RPM – one centre lobe is
operate the valves at low lift / locked via a hydraulically
duration profiles activated pin, and the intake
valves are then on a high-lift /
duration cam profile.

Page 32 of 109
 Introduction
Internal Combustion Engines – SI & CI
Forced Induction
Exhaust Emissions and their control
Alternative Engine Design Concepts

• Honda Variable valve Timing and Electronic lift Control

(VTEC™)

Stage 1 (low speed): One valve low lift, second medium lift. Increases swirl and air
turbulence – better combustion
Stage 2 (medium speed): Pin 1 locked – both valves medium lift – better VE at medium
speed
Stage 3 (high speed): Pin 2 locked – both valve high lift – best performance for high RPM
Page 33 of 109
 Introduction
Internal Combustion Engines – SI & CI
Forced Induction
Exhaust Emissions and their control
Alternative Engine Design Concepts

• VVT – cam phasing

Shifts phase angle of the camshaft – valve opening and closing happens sooner or later in
the cycle – does not change duration nor lift

Most systems provide a two-step cam phasing (0-30° generally), others, like Toyota
with their VVT-i system provide continuous phasing allowing for smoother
performance
At low speeds – 0° phasing for better low speed performance with low overlap
At high speeds – 30° phasing for better VE and power. Page 34 of 109
 Introduction
Internal Combustion Engines – SI & CI
Forced Induction
Exhaust Emissions and their control
Alternative Engine Design Concepts

• BMW Double VANOS

Double VANOS provides continuous phasing of both intake (40°) and exhaust (25°)

Hydraulic ram allows for phasing of cam by moving in and out –

movement controlled by solenoids and oil pressure from
lubrication system
Page 35 of 109
 Introduction
Internal Combustion Engines – SI & CI
Forced Induction
Exhaust Emissions and their control
Alternative Engine Design Concepts

• BMW Valvetronic
Valvetronic permits variation of valve lift from 0 to 9.7mm – no
need of a throttle butterfly. BMW claim a reduction of 10% of fuel
consumption in normal use.

Page 36 of 109
 Introduction
Internal Combustion Engines – SI & CI
Forced Induction
Exhaust Emissions and their control
Alternative Engine Design Concepts

• BMW Valvetronic

Page 37 of 109
 Introduction
Internal Combustion Engines – SI & CI
Forced Induction
Exhaust Emissions and their control
Alternative Engine Design Concepts

• BMW Valvetronic

Page 38 of 109
 Introduction
Internal Combustion Engines – SI & CI
Forced Induction
Exhaust Emissions and their control
Alternative Engine Design Concepts

• Toyota VVTL

VVTL uses cam phasing and two cam profiles for duration
Low RPM: Long duration cam not engaged, short duration cam in
action
High RPM: Long duration cam engaged by sliding pin (similar to
VTEC) – duration and lift both increased.
Page 39 of 109
 Introduction
Internal Combustion Engines – SI & CI
Forced Induction
Exhaust Emissions and their control
Alternative Engine Design Concepts

• Solenoid actuated valves – Valeo e-Valve

Advantages:
• Full control over valve events
• Opening and closing is rapid
• Cylinder deactivation is possible
• Decrease in pumping losses
• Different engine cycles may be
implemented
Disadvantages
• Bulky and heavy
• Increase in electrical power requirement
• No recovery of spring work as in
traditional valvetrains – limiting efficiency
Page 40 of 109
 Introduction
Internal Combustion Engines – SI & CI
Forced Induction
Exhaust Emissions and their control
Alternative Engine Design Concepts

• Valve float
To keep the valve closed when not acted upon by the cam, a spring is used.
Also used to keep the cam follower in contact with the cam ensuring a
reliable motion of the valve
At very high engine speeds however, it may happen that due to inertia of the
valve, spring retainer and follower, the valve can no longer follow the profile
of the cam. The follower is then no longer in contact with the cam. This
causes the valves to remain open longer than desired and upon closing the
follower slams into the cam lobe, increasing wear and tear

Page 41 of 109
THANK YOU

Page 42