Respiratory

System

Marieb & Hoehn, 9th ed. Fig. 22.7

Learning Objectives
 1. Describe the structure and function of the conducting zone and the respiratory
zone
 2. Describe the basic process of inspiration and expiration and define key lung
volumes and capacities
 3. Explain how oxygen and carbon dioxide are exchanged at the lungs and tissues,
and describe how they are transported in the blood
 4. Explain the function of surfactant and the role of elasticity and compliance in lung
function
 5. List the factors that affect the binding affinity between oxygen (oxyhaemoglobin
dissociation curve) and haemoglobin and relate this to the “loading” of gasses at the
lungs and “unloading” of gases at the tissues.
 6. Explain how the nervous system controls breathing.

This content will be assessed in Online Test 2

Functions of Respiratory System
Main role of respiratory system is to bring oxygen (O2) into body
and expel carbon dioxide (CO2) from body

 1. RESPIRATION
 Gas exchange - between lungs and pulmonary capillaries
 O2 delivery from lungs to blood
 CO2 removal from blood to lungs
 Note: this is different to ventilation
(movement of air between the environment and the lungs)
 2. METABOLISM
 Regulate acid-base balance by removing excess H+ ions
Marieb & Hoehn, 9th ed. Fig. 22.7
 3. DEFENCE
 Protects against inhaled particles
 4. MANUFACTURE
 Produces surfactant – important in preventing lung
collapse
Anatomy of Respiratory System

 Major structures:
 Nasal cavity (nose)
 Pharynx
 Larynx (+ epiglottis)
 Trachea
 Bronchi and branches
 Alveoli
Air flows through each structure
and on to next
 Each structure has protective
features like cilia or mucous
secretion… Marieb & Hoehn,9th ed., Fig.22.1
Conducting and Respiratory Zones
CONDUCTING ZONE
 AIR NOT INVOLVED IN GAS EXCHANGE
 Contains trachea and bronchial tree - acts like a ‘gas pipe’ that
contains: ‘DEAD SPACE AIR’ = 150ml
 Air is moistened, warmed and filtered
 Cartilage gradually replaced by smooth muscle in bronchioles,
which is innervated by ANS to change their diameter
 Parasympathetic = Bronchoconstriction
 Sympathetic = Bronchodilation
 Cilia (hair-like projections) line airways and beat rhythmically
to move debris and microbes out of lungs
 Goblet cells secrete mucus to enable cilia to move trapped
microbes. Mucus and cilia clean and protect airways

RESPIRATORY ZONE
 AIR INVOLVED IN GAS EXCHANGE
 Contains respiratory bronchioles and clusters of alveoli, 300 million!
(makes up most of the lung volume)
Respiratory Membrane
 Alveolar and capillary walls and their basement
membranes
 Alveoli contains:
 Type I cells → involved in gas exchange
 Type II cells → secretes surfactant (↓ surface tension)

Rate of diffusion described by:

GAS LAW #4: FICK’S LAW
 Surface area for gas exchange
 140 m2 (extremely large)
 Solubility of gases
 CO2 has high solubility, O2
solubility 1/20 of CO2 and N2 is
practically insoluble
 Partial pressure gradient
 Thickness of respiratory membrane
Marieb & Hoehn, 9th ed., Figs. 22.9 a & c
 Extremely thin, 0.4 - 1 µm, ideal
for gas exchange
 Surfactant and Surface Tension
 At liquid-air interfaces surface tension occurs
where there is a greater attraction of H2O
molecules to each other via strong hydrogen
bonds.
 The surface of the H2O becomes ‘under tension’
and the net effect is an inward force.
 A thin layer of H2O lines the alveoli wall.
 Surfactant ↓ surface tension by interfering with [Link]

cohesiveness of H2O molecules and keeps alveoli

open.
 Respiratory Distress Syndrome occurs when
premature babies do not produce surfactant and are
at risk of their alveoli collapsing.

[Link]
[Link]
LMrZQwTBmAlWxA/exploring-liquids-and-surface-
tension
Mechanics of Breathing - ventilation #1 GAS LAW: BOYLE’S LAW
Ventilation relies on contraction of skeletal muscle to change the volume of the Pressure is inversely
thoracic cavity (when the cavity expands so do the lungs). Air moves into and out of proportional to volume
body based on pressure changes

QUIET INSPIRATION QUIET EXPIRATION

AIR IN AIR OUT

• Diaphragm contracts and flattens out (inferiorly), • Diaphragm relaxes back into dome shape
external intercostals contract lifting ribcage up (superiorly), external intercostals relax
and out (anteriorly) (posteriorly)
• REQUIRES ENERGY • PASSIVE MOVEMENT
• Lungs stretch • Lungs recoil
•  Volume  Pressure •  Volume  Pressure
• Air flows into lungs, ‘down its pressure gradient’ • Air flows out of lungs, ‘down its pressure
(from high to low) gradient’ (from high to low)
• Pressure equalises (ends inspiration) • Pressure equalises (ends expiration)
Note: forced inspiration/expiration involves extra muscles including internal intercostals and other accessory muscles
Lung Volumes and Capacities
 Amount of air moving into and out of lungs varies
 Pulmonary function can be measured by spirometry

 Respiratory Volumes
 Depends on conditions of inspiration and expiration
 Respiratory Capacities
 Involves two or more lung volumes
 Ventilation
 Rate of gas movement into or out of lungs
Lung Volumes and Capacities
TV = volume of air
IRV = volume of air that can be
inspired and expired
forcefully inspired after a
with each breath at rest
normal tidal inspiration
= 500ml

Marieb & Hoehn, 9th ed. Fig. 22.16

ERV = volume of air that can be

RV = volume of air remaining
forcefully expired after a
after a forced expiration
normal tidal expiration
(can never expire)
Pulmonary vs Alveolar Ventilation
Pulmonary (minute) Ventilation Rate (VE) Alveolar Ventilation Rate (VA)
 Total volume of air that flows into or out of  Total volume of air that flows into or out of ALVEOLI in
RESPIRATORY TRACT in 1 minute 1 minute
 VE = TV x f  Since dead space is taken into account, it represents
volume of air involved in gas exchange
 VE = 500 ml/breath x 12 breaths/min
 VA =(TV - dead space) x f
 VE = 6000 ml/min (6.0 L/min)
 VA = (500 ml – 150 ml) x 12 breaths/min
 not all air is involved in gas exchange
 VA = 4200 ml/min (4.2 L/min)

Effects of Breathing Rate & Depth

in
s /m
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m e
c e a nt rea )
xf
ol u a t b
Sp cons of rest
ti d
a lv d
ea ml,
o .
n 2 at xf -D
S
= D
= ( 15 0 = (1 TV TV
TV DS f = = VE
VA
(ml) (ml) (ml/min)
500(ml/min)
150 12 6000 4200
1000 150 6 6000 5100
250 150 24 6000 2400
150 150 40 6000 0

Deep slow breathing results in more air making it to

respiratory zone to be used in gas exchange
Lets have
a quick
break!
Factors Affecting Gas Movement GAS LAW #2: DALTON’S LAW
Total pressure exerted by a mixture of gases
To understand gas exchange, we must understand air = the sum of each individual gas pressure
that we breathe..
 The atmosphere is mixture of different gases, which
each exert their own pressures termed ‘partial PO2 = 160mmHg (21%)
pressure (P)’ - a % that it contributes to the overall
pressure. PCO2 = 0.3mmHg (0.04%)
 Example: %O2 = 21% → PO2 = 760 x 0.21 = 160 mmHg N2 = 597mmHg (79%)

H2O = 3.5mmHg (0.05%)
These pressures are measured in mmHg

760mmHg
Inhaled air from the atmosphere mixes with air remaining in
the alveoli, which changes their partial pressures in the
lungs….

CO2 is 20 times more soluble in

body fluids than O2, hence why
only a small partial pressure for
CO2 which results in
approximately same amount of
CO2 diffusing for O2

[Link]/books/principles-of-general-chemistry [Link]
Gas exchange GAS LAW #3: HENRY’S LAW
Gas dissolves in liquid in proportion to its partial pressure
External Respiration
exchange of gas between alveoli Gas will flow from high pressure to low pressure (DIFFUSION)
and pulmonary capillaries until partial pressures are same (EQUILIBRIUM)

O2 diffuses from ALVEOLI → BLOOD

PO2 = 104mmHg
CO2 diffuses from BLOOD → ALVEOLI

PCO2 = 40mmHg Alveoli cells

(lungs)

PO2 = 40mmHg PO2 = 104mmHg

PCO2 = 45mmHg PCO2 = 40mmHg

O2 diffuses from BLOOD → TISSUES

PO2 = 40mmHg CO2 diffuses from TISSUES → BLOOD
PCO2 = 45mmHg
tissue cells

PO2 = 40mmHg PO2 = 104mmHg

Internal Respiration PCO2 = 40mmHg
PCO2 = 45mmHg
exchange of gases between
tissues and systemic capillaries
venous blood arteriolar blood
Oxygen Transport in Blood
 There are two ways that O2 is carried in blood:
1. Dissolved in plasma (1.5%) - depends on PO2
2. Oxyhaemoglobin (98.5%) - binds to haem part of haemoglobin (Hb) in RBCs

Lungs
Hb + O2 HbO2
Tissues

O2 O2

Hb
O2 O2

x 250 million [Link]

- which means a
single RBC can bind
to 1 billion O2
molecules!
Oxyhaemoglobin Dissociation Curve
• Hb 100% saturated (4
x O2 bound)
• Hb ‘fully loaded’
• Hb has high affinity for O2

All of these factors shift curve

to RIGHT – they enhance O2
off-loading = Bohr effect
 ↓ pH
 ↑ PCO2
 ↑ temperature
 ↑ BPG (by-product
of RBC metabolism)
Marieb & Hohen, 9th ed. Fig. 22.21

 This curve shows the saturation (binding or ‘affinity’) of haemoglobin to O 2 and how it changes with different partial pressures of
O2
 IN THE LUNGS: where partial pressure of O2 is high, O2 is loaded onto Hb
 IN THE TISSUES: where partial pressure of O2 is low, O2 is off-loaded by Hb to tissues
Carbon Dioxide Transport in Blood

 There are 3 ways that CO2 is carried in blood:

1. Dissolved in plasma (7%)
2. Bound to haemoglobin (23%) - binds to globin part of Hb in RBCs pH scale
3. As Bicarbonate (70%) OH- OH-
OH- OH- OH- ↑ pH

carbon carbonic carbonic

water hydrogen bicarbonate
dioxide anhydrase acid
(CA) baking

CO2 + H2O H2CO3 H+ + HCO3- soda

water

LO9 - What is the most important factor regulating breathing?

CARBON DIOXIDE due to its relationship to pH lemon
juice

H+
+ + H
+
↑ CO2 = ↑ H+ = ↓ pH (low pH = more acidic) H+ H H H+ ↓ pH
[Link]
Factors Influencing Rate and Depth of Breathing

Changes in CO2 and O2 is sensed by CENTRAL & PERIPHERAL chemoreceptors

 Located in aortic arch & carotid

 Most important centre located in medulla
arteries
 Primarily respond to ↑ CO2  Primarily responds to ↓PO2
(can also respond to PO2)
esp. < 50 – 60 mmHg
 CO2 readily diffuses into brain and causes (can also respond to ↑PCO2)
↑ [H+] in CSF (i.e. ↓pH)  Response = ↑ rate / depth of
 Response = rapid ↑ rate / depth of breathing
breathing

Marieb & Hoehn, 9th ed., Fig 22.23

Elasticity and Compliance in Lung Function
 Elasticity: ease with which lungs rebound or recoil after being stretched
 Governed by elasticity of alveolar membrane and surface tension
 Compliance: ability of lungs to expand

Two main categories of lung conditions that can affect ability to breathe:

Restrictive Obstructive
Definition: lost elasticity (‘stiff lung’) Definition: Blockage of bronchi
Features: Irreversible, may be related to Features: Reversible, smooth muscle,
dust diseases mucus; pollutants may initiate episodes
Example: Pulmonary fibrosis Example: Asthma

[Link]