CH-3

Tapping or Linear measurement

By
Haile Akelok
(MSC in Geomatics, Bsc in Surveying Engineering)
 Chapter Content
 Introduction to linear measurement

 Method of distance measurement

 Tapes, Taping Accessories

 Taping Horizontal Distance over Level Ground and

Over Sloping Group

 Taping Slope Distance


 Introduction to linear measurement
• Distance measurement is generally regarded as the most
fundamental of all surveying observations.

• In traditional ground surveys, even though many angles

may be read, the length of at least one line must be measured
to supplement the angles in locating points.

•• In
Linear measurement
plane is distance
surveying, the the process of
between two points means
determining
the thedistance
horizontal distance between two
points or objects in a straight line.
•It's a fundamental concept in
many scientific and practical
Distance is one of the fundamental measurements in surveying.
• Although frequently measured as a spatial distance (sloping
distance) in three-dimensional space, inevitably it is the
horizontal equivalent which is required.

• Measurement of horizontal distance or making linear

measurements is required in chain surveying, traverse surveying, and
other types of surveying

• Distance is required in many instances, e.g.

• to give scale to a network of control points,
• to fix the position of topographic detail by offsets or
polar coordinates,
• to set out the position of a point in construction work, etc.
• Every surveyor has to measure the
horizontal distance between two points on
the surface of the earth.

• Horizontal distance between two

points is the horizontal length between
plumb lines at the points.

• Slope distance is the inclined length

between the two points
Methods of measuring HD
 Methods of measuring HD
Distance may be determined by direct or indirect
measurements.
 Direct measurement of a line means to find its length by
comparing it with something of known length, such as a
rope, a steel chain or steel measuring tape.
a. Approximate
b. Tape or chain
 Indirect measurement means deducing the length of a
line from the measurement of other quantities, such as
 Direct method
1. Approximate methods

Approximate methods of measuring HD are commonly used in

reconnaissance surveying for the measurement of horizontal

distances.

The methods are also use sometimes to detect large mistakes in

linear measurements obtained with a tape

A. Pass meter.
A. Pacing
B. Pedometer
B. Measuring wheel
C. Speedometer
C. Odometer.
Pacing :-A person can determine the distance walked by counting the
number of paces made.

The distance can be obtained by multiplying the number

of paces by the average length of the paces.

The length of an individual’s pace must be determined

first.

Purpose of pacing in surveying, engineering, geology,

agriculture, forestry, and military field sketching.

Pacing is also used to detect blunders that may occur in

making distance observations by more accurate methods.

Measuring wheel/ odometer:- a simple device, which can be attached to wheel
of a bicycle or any such vehicle. A measuring wheel consists of a wheel mounted on
a lower end of rod about 1 m long through a fork.
It is the number of revolutions of a wheel of known circumference to a distance.

The upper end of the rod has a handle and The wheel is pushed along the
ground.
It registers the number of revolutions made by the wheel and The distance
traversed is recorded on the dial attached the wheel
Lengths measured by an odometer on a vehicle are suitable for some
preliminary surveys in route-location work
2. Speedometer. All automobiles have a speedometer to
indicate the speed and the distance traveled.

• If the ground is smooth, the speedometer can be used to

measure the distance.

3. Pass meter. It registers the number of paces the

mechanism operator automatically due to the motion of the
body as the person walks.

4. Pedometer. It is similar to a pass meter but it registers

directly the distance walked and not the number of paces.
 Tapes and Taping Accessories
• Taping is the linear measurement of the horizontal distance between two points
using a surveyor’s tape.
• Observation of horizontal distances by taping consists of applying the known
length of a graduated tape directly to line a number of times.

Observation of horizontal distances by taping consists of

applying the known length of a graduated tape directly to a line
a number of times.
Two types of problems arise:
Observing an unknown distance between fixed points,
such as between two stakes in the ground.
 Instruments For distance measurement

The materials for measuring distance directly are:-

Chains: - are measuring instruments, which have 20 m
length and subdivided into 20 cm or 30 cm. But nowadays
due to improved manufacturing techniques the chain has
been replaced by steel tapes.
Tape: - metallic tape, steel tape, cloth tape, invar tape
Measuring tapes can be classified into 5 types depending upon
3.Metallic tapes
the material used in their manufacture.
1. Liner or cloth tapes. 4. Steel tapes
2. Glass-fiber tapes
5. Invar
1. Linen or cloth tapes: These tapes tap of linen or
are made
cloth. The tape is light and handy but not very accurate.
These tapes are available in length of 10m 20m, 25m and
30m.
2. Glass–fibre tapes: These tapes are similar to linen and plastic
coated tapes but they are made of glass-fibre.

The tapes are quite flexible, strong and non- conductive.

4. Metallic tapes: These tapes are similar to liner tapes but are
made of water proof fabric or glass-fibre in which metallic
wires are interwoven.

5. Steel tapes: The steel tapes are the most commonly used tapes
in surveying.
• They are more accurate than metallic tapes.
• The steel tapes are made of steel or stainless steel
strip.
The commonly available lengths are 10 m, 15 m, 20 m, 30 m and 50
m.
• It is graduated in meters, decimeters, and
centimeters.
6. Invar Tapes. Invar tapes are made of an alloy of steel (64%)
and nickel (36%), which has a very low coefficient of thermal
expansion.

• Invar tapes are used for linear

measurements of very high precision.

• These are 6 mm wide and generally available

in length of 30 m, 50m, and 100m.

• It is not affected by change of temperature.

• Therefore, it is used when high degree
of precision is required.
 Taping Accessories
Chain and tape accessories are required for the determination of the length of a
line

• Chaining pins (Arrow) are used to mark tape lengths or mark the position of the ends
of the tape on the ground.
• Most taping pins made of sharply pointed at one end, have a round loop at the
other end, and are painted with alternate red and white bands

• The hand level is a simple instrument used to keep tape ends at equal elevations when
observing over rough terrain

• Plumb bobs. A freely suspended plumb bob always points towards the gravity; it
indicates the direction of the vertical line.

• In linear measurements plumb bobs are used for measuring distances on sloping
ground.
• Plump bobs are used in taping to permit the surveyor to hold the tape
horizontal when the ground is sloping.

• A graduation mark on the horizontal tape can be transferred down to a

point on the ground using the plumb bob string.

• a plumb bobs can be used to provide precise theodolite and total station
sightings

• Tension handles facilitate the application of desired standard or known tension.

• A pocket thermometer permits reading data for making temperature

corrections.

• Pegs. Wooden pegs are used to mark the position of the survey stations or the
end points of the survey line.
Range poles (Rods ) made of wood, steel or aluminum.
• The main utility of range poles is to mark the line
being measured so that the tape’s alignment can
be maintained
• Used to locate intermediate points such that these
points lie on the straight line joining the end
stations.
• Ranging rods are made of well-seasoned, straight-
grained timber.
Optical Square :– two pentagonal prisms mounted one above
the other in a metal or plastic housing.
• The instrument is used for establishing and checking
 Care of taping equipment
• The following points are pertinent in the care of tapes and range poles:
1. Considering the cross-sectional area of the average surveyor’s steel tape
and its permissible stress, a pull of 100 lb will do no damage. But if the tape is
kinked, a pull of less than 1 lb can break it. Therefore, always check to be certain
that any loops and kinks are eliminated before tension is applied.
2. If a tape gets wet, wipe it first with a dry cloth, then with an oily one.
3. Tapes should be either kept on a reel or “thrown” into circular loops, but not
handled both ways.
4. Each tape should have an individual number or tag to identify it.
5. Broken tapes can be mended by riveting or applying a sleeve device, but a
mended tape should not be used on important work.
6. Range poles are made with the metal shoe and point in line with the section
above. This alignment may be lost if the pole is used improperly
 Taping Horizontal Distance over Level Ground
• In many instances, it is easiest to simply measure the horizontal
distance by keeping both ends of the chain (steel tape) at the same
elevation.
• This is not difficult if there is not over long distance or so of
elevation change between points.
• Taping requires a minimum of two people.
• Using range poles, the line to be measured should be marked
at both ends (in a vertical position), and at intermediate
points where necessary, to ensure the unobstructed sight
lines.
• The forward tape person is lined in by the rear tape person.
•
•to measure the length of a line, which is greater than the
length of the tape, the following principle should be followed.

•At least two persons are needed in chaining i.e. with two
chainmen.

 Leader chainman (with ranging rod & peg),

 Follower chainman

• One who is recording measurements (optional)

• The rear tape person holding the 0m end of a tape over the first (rear)
point lines in the forward tape person, holding the other end of the
tape.
• For accurate results the tape must be straight and the two ends held at the
same elevation.
• A specified tension is applied.
• In some case, Plumb-bob is used to hold the tape above ground in a
horizontal position.
• Placing the plumb-bob string over the proper tape graduation and securing
it with one thumb, mark each end point on the tape.
• The rear tape person continues to hold a plumb over the fixed point, while
the forward tape person marks the length.
• In measuring a distance shorter than a full tape length, the forward tape
person moves the plumb-bob string to a point on the tape over the ground
 Tapping procedure
• Tape must always be straight

• Tape must not be twisted

• Use chaining arrows for intermediate

points

• Tape horizontally if possible

• Tape on the ground if possible

• Slope taping needs to be reduced

• Step taping suits some applications

• Catenary taping requires correction

 Aligning fixed station points in
surveying
 The process of establishing intermediate points on a straight line is known as ranging out or aligning in
surveying.

 It is necessary to establish intermediate points on a line if the distance is greater than one tape lengths. The
ranging out ensures that the straight distance between two points is measured.

 Ranging out survey can be done either direct or indirect ranging

 Direct Ranging includes ranging by eyes and by theodolite

 Indirect ranging is done by establishing intermediate two stations from each one of the chain line ends,
and taking step by step ranging from both ends

 Ranging a line means establishing a set of intermediate points on a straight line between two points
already fixed on the ground
Lining In

• Using range poles, the line to be measured should be

marked at both ends, and at intermediate points
where necessary, to ensure unobstructed sight lines.

• Taping requires a minimum of two people, a forward

tape person and a rear tape person. The forward tape
person is lined in by the rear tape person.

• Directions are given by vocal or hand signals.

Applying Tension
• The rear tape person holding the 100-ft end of a tape over the first
(rear) point lines in while the forward tape person, holding the zero
end of the tape.
• For accurate results the tape must be straight and the two ends held
at the same elevation.
• A specified tension, generally between 10 and 25 lb, is applied.
• To maintain a steady pull, tape persons wrap the leather thong at the
tape’s end around one hand, keep forearms against their bodies, and
face at right angles to the line. In this position, they are off the line of
sight.
• Also, the body need only be tilted to hold, decrease, or increase the
pull.
• Sustaining a constant tension with outstretched arms is difficult, if not
impossible, for a pull of 15 lb or more.
• Good communication between forward and rear tape persons will
3 Plumbing

• Weeds, brush, obstacles, and surface irregularities may make it

undesirable to lay a tape on the ground.

• In those cases, the tape is held above ground in a horizontal position

and Placing the plumb-bob string over the proper tape graduation and
securing it with one thumb, mark each end point on the tape.

• The rear tape person continues to hold a plumb bob over the fixed
point, while the forward tape person marks the length.

• In measuring a distance shorter than a full tape length, the forward

tape person moves the plumb-bob string to a point on the tape over
the ground mark.
4 Marking Tape Lengths

• The forward tape person then places a pin exactly opposite the
zero mark of the tape and calls “stuck.”
• The marked point is checked by repeating the measurement
until certainty of its correct location is assured

• After checking the measurement, the forward tape person signals

that the point is OK, the rear tape person pulls up the rear pin,
and they move ahead.
• The forward tape person drags the tape, paces roughly 100
ft, and stops
5. Reading the Tape

• There are two common styles of graduations on 100-ft surveyor’s tapes. It is necessary to
identify the type being used before starting work to avoid making one-foot mistakes
repeatedly

• The more common type of tape has a total graduated length of 101 ft.
• It is marked from 0 to 100 by full feet in one direction, and has an additional foot
preceding the zero mark graduated from 0 to 1 ft in tenths, or in tenths and
hundredths in the other direction.
• In measuring the last partial tape length of a line with this kind of tape, a full-foot
graduation is held by the rear tape person at the last pin set

• The other kind of tape found in practice has a total graduated length of 100 ft.
• It is marked from 0 to 100 with full-foot increments, and the first foot at each end (from
0 to 1 and from 99 to 100) is graduated in tenths, or in tenths and hundredths
• the last partial tape length is measured by holding a full-foot graduation at the last
chaining pin set such that the graduated section of the tape between the zero mark and
the 1-ft mark straddles the closing point.
6 Recording the Distance

• Accurate fieldwork may be canceled by careless recording.

• After the partial tape length is obtained at the end of a line,

the rear tape person determines the number of full 100-ft
tape lengths by counting the pins collected from the
original set.

Although taping procedures may appear to be relatively simple,

high precision is difficult to achieve, especially for beginners.

• Taping is a skill that can best be taught and learned by field

 Taping on the slope ground
• In taping on uneven or sloping ground, it is standard practice
to hold the tape horizontally and use a plumb bob at one or
perhaps both ends.

• It is difficult to keep the plumb line steady for heights

above the chest.

• it is standard practice to hold the tape horizontally and

use a plumb bob at one or perhaps both ends.

• Wind exaggerates this problem and may make accurate

work impossible.
• On steeper slopes, where a 100-ft length cannot be held horizontally without
plumbing from above shoulder level, shorter distances are measured and
accumulated to total a full tape length. This procedure, called breaking tape,
Taping downhill is preferable to measuring uphill for two
reasons

• First, in taping downhill, the rear point is held steady on a

fixed object while the other end is plumbed.

• In taping uphill, the forward point must be set while the

other end is wavering somewhat.

• Second, if breaking tape is necessary, the head tape person

can more conveniently use the hand level to proceed
downhill a distance, which renders the tape horizontal
 SOURCES OF ERROR IN TAPING

• There are three fundamental sources of error in taping

1. Instrumental errors. A tape may differ in actual length from

its nominal graduated length because of a defect in
manufacture or repair, or as a result of kinks.

2. Natural errors. The horizontal distance between end

graduations of a tape varies because of the effects of
temperature, wind, and weight of the tape itself.

3. Personal errors. Tape persons setting pins, reading the tape,

 COMMON MISTAKES IN Reading and Recording
MEASUREMENTS.

• Failure to observe the position of the zero point of the tape.

(In some tapes it is not at the end of the ring.)

• Omitting a whole chain- or tape-length.

• Reading from wrong end of chain, as 40 ft. for 60 ft., or in the

wrong direction from a tag, as 47 ft. for 53 ft.

• Transposing figures, e.g., 46.24 for 4642 (mental); or reading tape

upside down, e.g., 6 for 9, or 86 for 98.

• Reading wrong foot-mark, as 48.92 for 47.92.

 Corrections for systematic
errors in Taping
• For general occurrence the steel band or tape are graduated in millimeter.
• They are standardized so that they measure their nominal length when
temperature is 20°c and the applied tension is between 50N to 80N.
• This information is printed on two zero end of the tape.

• Tape measurements require certain corrections to be applied to the measured

distance depending upon the conditions under which the measurements have
been made.

• Length correction/ Correction for Absolute Length:

• Correction for Pull or
• Correction for Temperature
Tension
• Correction for sag
• Correction for Slope
• Tension correction
• Reduction to Mean Sea
 Length correction/ Correction for Absolute Length

• Error occur Due to manufacturing defects the absolute length

of the tape may be different from its designated or nominal
length.
• Also with use the tape may stretch causing change in the
length and it is imperative that the tape is regularly checked
under standard conditions tocorrection
Where: c = the determine itslength
per tape absolute
c=(l-l’)length.
The correction for absolute length
l = the designated or standardization
or nominal length of the tap is given
by
L= the measured length of the line.
𝐿
𝐶𝑎 =( 𝑙 ′ − 𝑙 ) ∗ l’= actual tape length
𝑙
If the absolute length is more than the nominal length the sign of the correction is
positive and vice versa.
• Example: - A measurement of 171.278 m was recorded
with a 30-m tape that was only 29.996 m long under
standard conditions. What is the corrected measurement?
 Correction for Temperature

• The standard of steel tape temperature from 68°F (20°C). A

temperature higher or lower than this value causes a change in length that
must be considered.

• The coefficient of thermal expansion and contraction of steel used in ordinary

tapes is approximately 0.00000645 per unit length per degree Fahrenheit, and
0.0000116 per unit length per degree Celsius
• If the tape is used at a field temperature different from the
standardization temperature then the temperature correction
to the measured length is
A steel tape was standardized at 20o C. and the distance
between the 0 mark and the 30 meter mark was found to be
30.000 meters. This tape was used to measure a distance that
was determined to be 87.342 meters. At the time the
measurement was made the temperature of the tape was 10 oC.
What is the correct distance
 Correction for sag
For very accurate measurements the tape can be allowed to
hang in catenary between two supports
• A steel tape not supported along its entire length sags in the form of a
catenary,
• a good example being the cable between two power poles. Because of sag, the
horizontal distance (chord length) is less than the graduated distance between
tape ends
Note: - If the tape in used on a plane surface, which can be
considered, flat then no Correction is applicable. Sag errors
depend on taping distance is therefore accumulated for each
taping sub-distance.
Example: A 30-m tape is used with standard tension of 50N.
However, the tape is not fully supported. If the unit weight of
tape is 0.14N/m, determine the sag correction?
 Correction for Pull or Tension
• If the pull applied to the tape in the field is different from the standardization
pull, the pull correction is to be applied to the measured length.

• Steel tapes provide direct measurement at a “standard” pull tension of 50 N

(~11 lbs).

• The pull correction depends on the both the x-section area of the tape and
its modulus of elasticity.

• The average modulus (E) for steel tapes is 200x109 N/m2 (1 N/m2 = 1
Pascel).

• The x-section areas may differ but are generally

i) 8mm x 0.45mm for Heavy Duty tapes (3.6 mm2)
ii) 6mm x 0.30mm for Normal usage tapes (1.8 mm2).
• When a steel tape is pulled with a tension greater than its
standard pull (the tension at which it was calibrated), the
tape will stretch and become longer than its standard
length.
• Conversely, if less than standard pull is used, the tape will be
shorter than its standard length.
•where
The modulus of elasticity of the tape regulates the amount
P = the pull applied during the measurement and P0 = the standardization pull,
that it stretches.
A = the area of cross-section of the tape, and E = the Young’s modulus for the
tape material.

The sign of the correction is same as that of (P – P0)

Example: A 30-m tape is used with a 100N force instead of the
standard tension of 50N. If the x section area of the tape is 1.8
mm2, what is the tension error per tape length?

Errors resulting from incorrect tension can be eliminated by

(a) using a spring balance to measure and maintain the
standard pull or
(b) applying a pull other than standard and making
 Correction for Slope
If the length L is measured on the slope, it must be reduced to its
horizontal equivalent L cos θ. The required slope correction is

Where θ = the angle of the slope, and

h = the difference in elevation of the ends of the tape.
The sign of this correction is always negative.
Example

The slope distance of line AB is 76.52 m. The difference in

elevation is 30.55 m for points A and B. Determine the slope
correction for line AB assuming slopes are gentle, steep and
very steep.
 Correction for Alignment
If the intermediate points are not in correct alignment with ends
of the line, a correction for alignment given below, is applied to
the measured length
Where d = the distance by which the
other end of the tape is out of alignment.

The correction for alignment is always negative.

• In the case of long lines in triangulation surveys the
relationship between the length AB measured on the
ground and the equivalent length A'B′ at mean sea level
has to be considered.
• Determination of the equivalent mean sea level length of
the measured length is known as reduction to mean sea
level.
• The reduced length at mean sea level is given by
Where R = the mean earth’s radius (6372 km),
H = the average elevation of the line.
When H is considered small compared to R, the
correction to L is given as

The sign of the correction is always negative for points

above the mean sea level.
 Rules in Tape Corrections

• First Rule: When a line is measured with a tape that is

“TOO LONG”, corrections are ADDED

• Second Rule: When laying out a length with a tape

that is “TOO LONG”, corrections are SUBTRACTED

• Third Rule: When a line is measured or laid out with

a tape that is “TOO SHORT”, corrections applied are
opposite of 1st and 2nd rules
 COMBINED CORRECTIONS IN A TAPING PROBLEM

• In taping linear distances, several types of systematic errors often occur

simultaneously.

• The following examples illustrate procedures for computing and applying

corrections for the two basic types of problems, measurement and layoff.

Example:- A 30-m steel tape standardized at 20°C and supported throughout

under a tension of 5.45 kg was found to be 30.012 m long. The tape had a cross-
sectional area of 0.05cm 2 and a weight of 0.03967 kg/m. This tape was held
horizontal, supported at the ends only, with a constant tension of 9.09 kg, to
measure a line from A to B in three segments. The data listed in the following
table were recorded. Apply corrections for tape length, temperature, pull, and sag
to determine the correct length of the line
• A 100-ft steel tape standardized at 68°F and supported
throughout under a tension of 20 lb was found to be 100.012 ft
long. The tape had a cross-sectional area of and a weight of
0.0266 lb/ft. This tape is used to lay off a horizontal distance CD
of exactly 175.00 ft. The ground is on a smooth 3% grade, thus
the tape will be used fully supported. Determine the correct
slope distance to layoff if a pull of 15 lb is used and the
temperature is 87°F.
• A steel tape of nominal length 30 m was used to measure the
distance between two points A and B on a structure. The
following measurements were recorded with the tape
suspended between A and B:
 Indirect method of linear measurement
• The distance is not actually measured in the field. It
is computed indirectly from other observed
quantities. Like tachometric

• In stadia tachometry the line of sight of the

tachometer may be kept horizontal or inclined
depending upon the field conditions.
• In the case of horizontal line of sight, the horizontal
distance between the instrument at A and the staff at
B is
Where:- k and c = the multiplying and additive constants of
the tacheometer, and
 s = the staff intercept,= ST – SB, where ST and SB are the top
• Generally, the value of k and c are kept equal to 100 and 0
(zero), respectively, for making the computations simpler.
Thus

D = 100 s
 Electronic Distance Measurement
• EDM instruments are available to measure distance using light
and radio waves.

• The distance is calculated either from the time difference

between a transmitted pulse and a return pulse or the
phase difference between a transmitted and a reflected
beam of radiation.

• An electronic distance-measuring (EDM) instrument

can determine distances by measuring phase changes that
occur as electromagnetic energy of known wavelength
travels from the instrument and returns
 :
• These are basically of two types:
1. Electro optical instruments, which use light
waves for measurement of distance.
2. Microwave instruments, which use radio waves
for measurement of distance
• These devices measure lengths by indirectly determining
the number of full and partial waves of transmitted,
electromagnetic energy required in traveling between the
two ends of a line.
• In practice, the energy is transmitted from one end of the
 Thanks
Chapter summary question

1. List and explain tape accessory

2. Differentiate three method of linear

measurement

3. Discussed about systematic error correction

4. Discussed about tapping over level and slope

ground
1. A steel tape with a cross‐sectional area of 0.03cm2 is 30.00m long under a pull of 5kg when
supported throughout. It is used in measuring a line 875.63m long under a steady pull of 10kg.
Assuming E = 2.0 x 106 kg/cm2, what is the elongation of the tape due to increase in tension?
What is the correct length of the measured line?

2. A 30‐m steel tape weighs 1.05kg and is supported at its end points and at the 10‐m and 25‐m
marks. If a pull of 6.0kg is applied to the ends of the tape, what is the correction due to sag for
a full tape length?

3. A 30-m tape is used with standard tension of 50N. However, the tape is not fully supported. If
the unit weight of tape is 0.14N/m, determine the sag correction?

4. A survey line was measured with a tape, believed to be 20m long, a length of 284.62m
resulted. On checking, the tape was found to measure 19.95m long. What was the correct
length of the line?

5. If the line lay on a slope of 1 in 20 what would be the reduced horizontal length used in the