MATTU UNIVERSTY

COLLEGE OF: ENGINEERING AND

TECHNOLOGY
DEPARTMENT OF: CHEMICAL
ENGINEERING

Course : Principles of Food Processing Technology

Name Id

Yimer Mohammed 5601

 1. Process design aspects for liquid foods such as milk and juices

 Liquid foods like milk and juices present unique challenges and opportunities in

process design. Here's a breakdown of key aspects:

1. Raw Material Handling & Pre-treatment

 Receiving and Storage: Proper handling is crucial to maintain quality and
prevent spoilage. This includes:
 Temperature Control: Maintaining appropriate temperatures (e.g.,
refrigeration for milk) to prevent microbial growth and enzymatic activity.
 Segregation: Separating raw materials based on quality and origin to

ensure traceability and minimize contamination risks.

 Storage Conditions: Ensuring proper ventilation, hygiene, and protection
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from pests and rodents.
  Cleaning and Sanitization: This step removes dirt, microbes, and foreign
matter:
 Cleaning: Using water and detergents to remove visible impurities.
 Sanitization: Employing chemical agents (e.g., chlorine, peracetic acid)
to kill microorganisms and reduce contamination levels.
 Standardization: Blending raw materials to achieve desired composition
and consistency:
 Milk: Adjusting fat content, protein levels, and solids-not-fat to meet

market demands.
 Juices: Blending different fruit varieties or adding water to achieve

desired sweetness and flavor.

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  Pasteurization/UHT Treatment: Inactivation of pathogens to ensure safety
and extend shelf life:
 Pasteurization: Heating the product to a specific temperature for a set

time to kill most vegetative bacteria.

 Ultra-High Temperature (UHT) Processing: Heating the product to

very high temperatures (around 140°C) for a short time, followed by

aseptic packaging, to achieve complete sterilization.
2. Processing Operations
Homogenization: Breaking down fat globules into smaller particles to:
 Improve product stability and prevent creaming (separation of fat in milk).
 Enhance the texture and mouthfeel of the product.

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 Concentration: Removing water to:

 Increase shelf life by reducing microbial growth and slowing down

chemical reactions.
 Reduce transportation costs by decreasing product weight and volume.
 Methods:
 Evaporation: Heating the product under reduced pressure to
evaporate water.
 Reverse Osmosis: Using a membrane to separate water from the
product.
 Flavoring and Sweetening: Adding ingredients to enhance taste and appeal:
 Flavors: Natural or artificial flavors, fruit purees, concentrates.
 Sweeteners: Sugar, corn syrup, artificial sweeteners.
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 3. Packaging and Distribution
 Container Selection: Choosing appropriate packaging materials based
on:
 Product characteristics (e.g., acidity, viscosity).
 Market requirements (e.g., convenience, aesthetics).
 Environmental considerations (e.g., recyclability).

 Filling and Sealing: Ensuring product integrity and preventing

contamination during filling and sealing operations.
 Storage and Transportation: Maintaining the cold chain during
storage and transportation to:
 Preserve product quality and freshness.
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 Prevent microbial growth and spoilage.
 4. Quality Control and Assurance
 In-Process Monitoring: Regular testing of raw materials and finished
products to ensure they meet quality standards:
 Physical and Chemical Tests: Measuring pH, acidity, viscosity, color,
and other parameters.
 Microbiological Tests: Checking for the presence of harmful
microorganisms.
 Sensory Evaluation: Assessing product taste, texture, aroma, and appearance
through trained sensory panels.
 Shelf-Life Studies: Determining product stability under different storage
conditions to establish best-before dates.

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 5. Process Optimization
 Energy Efficiency: Minimizing energy consumption through:
 Efficient equipment design and operation.
 Heat recovery systems.
 Process optimization techniques.
 Waste Reduction: Implementing measures to minimize waste generation and maximize
resource utilization:
 Waste segregation and recycling.
 Water conservation measures.
 Byproduct utilization.
 Cost Optimization: Balancing production costs with product quality and consumer
demand:
 Process optimization to improve efficiency and reduce costs.
 Raw material selection and procurement strategies.
 Packaging and distribution cost management.
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 2. concentration using thermal and membrane processes

Concentration Using Thermal Processes

 Thermal processes rely on heat energy to remove water or solvent from a solution,

leaving behind a more concentrated substance.

 These processes are widely used in industries that handle liquids like juices, milk,

syrups, and chemicals.

 The core principle revolves around phase change, primarily evaporation or freezing, to

separate water.
1. Evaporation
 Mechanism:
 Evaporation uses heat to convert water or solvent into vapor, which is then
separated from the remaining liquid.
 The boiling point of water is reduced under vacuum conditions, allowing

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evaporation to occur at lower temperatures (this is crucial for heat-sensitive
products).
2. Freeze Concentration
Mechanism:
 Instead of heating, water is frozen into ice crystals, which are mechanically

separated from the liquid. This concentrates the solutes.

 Example: In the beverage industry, freeze concentration is used to make high-quality

orange juice concentrate that retains its natural flavor and aroma.
Advantages:
 No heat is involved, so there’s minimal loss of nutrients, flavors, or volatile

compounds.
 Ideal for delicate products like coffee extracts, fruit juices, and pharmaceutical

solutions.
Challenges:
 High energy consumption due to the refrigeration required.
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 Ice separation can be complex and costly.
 Concentration Using Membrane Processes
 Membrane processes are non-thermal, energy-efficient methods that use semi-

permeable membranes to separate water or solvents from solutes.

 These processes are particularly advantageous for heat-sensitive products.

1. Reverse Osmosis (RO)

Mechanism:
 Reverse osmosis relies on applying high pressure to force water through a
semi-permeable membrane, leaving solutes (e.g., sugars, salts, and proteins)
behind.
 The pressure applied must exceed the natural osmotic pressure of the solution.
 Example: RO is used to concentrate fruit juices, where water is removed while
retaining the flavor, sugars, and nutrients.

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 Applications:
 Desalination of seawater to produce drinking water.
 Pre-concentration of dairy products like whey before drying.
 Concentration of maple syrup and fruit juices to reduce bulk for transport.
Advantages:
 Energy-efficient compared to thermal methods.
 Retains sensitive nutrients and flavors since no heat is involved.
Disadvantages:
 Only moderately effective at concentration—cannot achieve very high
concentration levels like evaporation.
 Membranes can foul (become clogged) and require frequent cleaning or
replacement.

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 2. Ultrafiltration (UF)
Mechanism:
 Ultrafiltration uses membranes with larger pores compared to RO.
 It separates water and small solutes from larger molecules, such as proteins,
polysaccharides, and fats.
 Example: UF is widely used in the dairy industry to concentrate whey proteins
or lactose.
Applications:
 Production of whey protein concentrate (WPC) or lactose-free milk.
 Concentration of plant-based proteins (e.g., pea protein).
 Clarification of fruit juices by removing suspended solids.

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 Advantages:
 Suitable for separating and concentrating large molecules like proteins.
 Preserves the functional and nutritional properties of sensitive compounds.
Disadvantages:
 Can not remove small solutes like salts or sugars.
 Limited to specific applications requiring selective separation.
3. Nanofiltration (NF)
Mechanism:
 Nanofiltration membranes have pore sizes between those of RO and UF,

allowing selective removal of small solutes while retaining larger ones.

 Example: NF can concentrate sugars while allowing water and small salts to

pass through, making it useful in sugar syrup production.

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 Advantages:
 No heat is involved, so there’s minimal loss of nutrients, flavors, or volatile
compounds.
 Ideal for delicate products like coffee extracts, fruit juices, and pharmaceutical
solutions.
Challenges:
 High energy consumption due to the refrigeration required.

 Ice separation can be complex and costly.

3. Thermal Processes: Pros and Cons

Advantages Disadvantages
Can achieve very high concentration High energy requirements (heating or
levels freezing).
Widely applicable to various industries Can degrade heat-sensitive compounds
during evaporation.
15 Established technology with proven Freeze concentration requires specialized
 Concentration Using Membrane Processes
 Membrane processes are non-thermal, energy-efficient methods that use semi-
permeable membranes to separate water or solvents from solutes.
 These processes are particularly advantageous for heat-sensitive products.
1. Reverse Osmosis (RO)
Mechanism:
 Reverse osmosis relies on applying high pressure to force water through a
semi-permeable membrane, leaving solutes (e.g., sugars, salts, and
proteins) behind.
 The pressure applied must exceed the natural osmotic pressure of the
solution.
 Example: RO is used to concentrate fruit juices, where water is removed

16 while retaining the flavor, sugars, and nutrients.

 Continue...
Applications:
 Desalination of seawater to produce drinking water.
 Pre-concentration of dairy products like whey before drying.
 Concentration of maple syrup and fruit juices to reduce bulk for transport.
Advantages:
 Energy-efficient compared to thermal methods.
 Retains sensitive nutrients and flavors since no heat is involved.
Disadvantages:
 Only moderately effective at concentration—cannot achieve very high
concentration levels like evaporation.
 Membranes can foul (become clogged) and require frequent cleaning or
replacement.
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2. Ultrafiltration (UF)
Mechanism:
 Ultrafiltration uses membranes with larger pores compared to RO. It
separates water and small solutes from larger molecules, such as
proteins, polysaccharides, and fats.
 Example: UF is widely used in the dairy industry to concentrate whey
proteins or lactose.
Applications:
 Production of whey protein concentrate (WPC) or lactose-free milk.
 Concentration of plant-based proteins (e.g., pea protein).
 Clarification of fruit juices by removing suspended solids.

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 Advantages:
 Suitable for separating and concentrating large molecules like proteins.
 Preserves the functional and nutritional properties of sensitive compounds.
Disadvantages:
 Cannot remove small solutes like salts or sugars.
 Limited to specific applications requiring selective separation.
3. Nanofiltration (NF)
Mechanism:
 Nanofiltration membranes have pore sizes between those of RO and UF,

allowing selective removal of small solutes while retaining larger ones.

 Example: NF can concentrate sugars while allowing water and small salts

to pass through, making it useful in sugar syrup production.

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 4. Forward Osmosis (FO)
Mechanism:
 Forward osmosis uses a concentrated draw solution to naturally pull water
across a membrane, leaving solutes behind. No external pressure is
applied.
 Example: Emerging in juice and coffee concentration where maintaining
flavor integrity is critical.
Advantages:
 Extremely gentle process, ideal for high-quality products.
 Lower energy consumption compared to RO and thermal methods.
Disadvantages:
 Slow process compared to RO.

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 Requires additional steps to separate the draw solution from the product
 Comparison of Thermal vs. Membrane Processes

Aspect Thermal Processes Membrane Processes

Energy Usage High (heating or freezing Low (pressure-driven
required) systems)

Heat Sensitivity May degrade heat- Ideal for heat-sensitive

sensitive compounds products

Concentration Level Can achieve very high Limited by membrane

levels of concentration capacity

Operating Cost Higher due to energy use Moderate (membrane

replacement costs)

Applications Juices, syrups, milk, Proteins, juices,

pharmaceuticals desalination, beverages
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 3. Food Packaging And Product Shelf Life
1. Functions of Food Packaging in Shelf Life Extension
Food packaging serves multiple purposes beyond just containment.

 These include:

A. Protection Against Environmental Factors

 Oxygen: Exposure to oxygen accelerates spoilage by promoting oxidation of

fats (leading to rancidity) and degradation of nutrients like vitamins A and C.

 Packaging materials with oxygen barriers (e.g., vacuum-sealed or nitrogen-

flushed packaging) help prolong freshness.

Example: Potato chips are often packed in nitrogen to prevent oxidation and
maintain crunchiness.
 Moisture: Packaging prevents water loss (in fresh produce) or water gain (in

dry foods like crackers), both of which affect texture and quality.
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  Light: UV and visible light can degrade pigments (e.g., chlorophyll in green
vegetables), vitamins, and fats.
 Opaque or tinted packaging blocks light exposure.
Example: Milk stored in opaque cartons prevents light-induced vitamin
degradation.
B. Microbial Protection
 Packaging creates a physical barrier to prevent contamination by bacteria,

molds, or other microorganisms.

Example: Sterile packaging like Tetra Pak ensures long shelf life for milk and
juices without refrigeration.
C. Modified Atmosphere Packaging (MAP)
 MAP replaces the air inside the package with a controlled mix of gases (such

23 as nitrogen or carbon dioxide) to slow microbial growth and oxidation.

 Example: Fresh-cut salads are packed with reduced oxygen levels to delay
wilting and spoilage
D. Physical Protection
 Packaging prevents damage from impact, compression, or vibration during

transport and storage.

Example: Eggs are stored in specially designed cartons to prevent
breakage.
E. Convenience and Communication
 Packaging often includes instructions for proper storage (e.g., “keep
refrigerated” or “store in a cool, dry place”) to guide consumers in
maintaining shelf life

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 2. Types of Packaging Materials and Their Effects on Shelf Life
 Different materials are used based on the food product's specific needs.
 Here's a closer look:
A. Plastic Packaging
Advantages:
 Lightweight and flexible.
 Can be made with excellent moisture and gas barrier properties (e.g.,
polyethylene, polypropylene).
 Can be vacuum-sealed or heat-sealed for airtight packaging.
Applications:
 Used for snack foods, frozen items, and beverages.
 Plastic films (e.g., polyvinyl chloride) are used for perishable products like

25 fresh meat.
 B. Glass Packaging
Advantages:
 Non-reactive and impermeable to gases and moisture.
 Excellent for heat-sterilized products like canned fruits or sauces.
 Provides extended shelf life for acidic or alcohol-based products.
Applications:
 Pickles, jams, beverages (e.g., wine, beer).

Limitations:
 Heavy and breakable.
C. Metal Packaging (Cans)
Advantages:
 Fully protects against light, moisture, and oxygen.
 Suitable for long-term storage of shelf-stable foods like canned vegetables,
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soups, and fish.
 Applications:
 Tuna, condensed milk, baked beans.

Limitations:
 Can react with acidic foods if not properly coated.
D. Paper and Cardboard
Advantages:
 Lightweight and biodegradable.
 Often used as secondary packaging for dry foods or snacks.
Applications:
 Cereal boxes, pizza boxes.
Limitations:
 Limited barrier properties unless coated with plastic or wax.

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 E. Composite Packaging
Advantages:
 Combines materials like plastic, paper, and aluminum for superior
barrier properties.
Applications:
 Tetra Pak for milk, juice, and soups.
Limitations:
 Difficult to recycle due to layered materials.

3. Packaging Technologies That Enhance Shelf Life

 Advances in packaging technology have significantly improved food
preservation. Here are some modern techniques:
A. Active Packaging
 Packaging that interacts with the food or the environment to extend shelf
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life.
 B. Modified Atmosphere Packaging (MAP)
 Alters the internal atmosphere of the package to slow microbial growth and oxidation.

 Example: Reducing oxygen and increasing carbon dioxide levels extends the freshness

of meats and seafood.

C. Vacuum Packaging
 Removes air from the package, creating an oxygen-free barrier that prevents microbial
growth and oxidation.
 Example: Vacuum-sealed coffee or cured meats.
D. Edible Packaging
 Thin, edible films made from proteins, polysaccharides, or lipids act as an additional
barrier.
 Example: Edible coatings on fruits (like apples) reduce moisture loss and slow
ripening.
E. Intelligent Packaging
29 Monitors the condition of the food and provides real-time information to consumers.
 4.Aseptic Packaging, Freezing And Thawing Calculations
 Aseptic packaging, freezing, and thawing calculations involve several important
factors, especially in food science and preservation.
 Here’s a breakdown of the key concepts and calculations involved:
Aseptic Packaging
 Aseptic packaging is a process where food is sterilized separately from its
packaging, allowing for a longer shelf life without refrigeration. Key
considerations include:
 Sterilization Methods: Common methods include heat, chemical, or radiation.
 Material Selection: Packaging materials must be resistant to heat and moisture,
and provide an effective barrier against pathogens.
 Filling Process: The product must be filled into the packaging in a sterile

30 environment to prevent contamination.

 Freezing Calculations
 Freezing is a method used to preserve food by lowering its temperature to
inhibit microbial growth. Key calculations include:
 Freezing Rate: The time it takes for a product to freeze can be calculated
using the formula:

Equilibrium Freezing Point: This can be calculated based on the composition of the
food. For example, the freezing point depression can be computed using:

where Kf​is the cryoscopic constant and mmm is the molal concentration

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 Thawing Calculations
Thawing must be done carefully to maintain food safety and quality. Important
considerations include:
 Thawing Rate: Similar to freezing, the rate can be calculated based on heat
transfer principles:

where m is the mass, Cp​is the specific heat capacity,

ΔT is the temperature change, and Q is the rate of heat transfer.
Practical Applications
 Food Safety: Ensure that food is rapidly frozen and thawed to minimize
microbial growth.
 Quality Preservation: Proper packaging and temperature control can help
32 maintain the texture and flavor of food products
 5. Food Laws, Legislation, Safety And Quality Control
Food Laws and Legislation

1. Regulatory Agencies
 Regulatory agencies play a crucial role in enforcing food safety and quality standards.

 Here are some key agencies:

U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA):

 Role: The FDA oversees the safety of the majority of food products (excluding meat and

poultry), dietary supplements, and bottled water.

 Responsibilities: Establishes food safety standards, conducts inspections, and monitors

food labeling practices to protect public health.

U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA):

 Role: Primarily responsible for the safety of meat, poultry, and egg products.
 Responsibilities: Inspects processing plants, enforces the Poultry Products Inspection
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Act, and ensures accurate labeling and quality.
2. Key Legislation
Several significant laws shape food safety and quality control:
Food Safety Modernization Act (FSMA) (U.S.):
 Purpose: Shifted the focus from responding to food safety problems to
preventing them.
 Key Provisions: Requires food facilities to implement preventive controls,
conduct risk assessments, and maintain records.
Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act (FFDCA):
 Purpose: Provides the FDA with the authority to oversee food safety, labeling,
and the safety of food additives.
Key Provisions: Establishes standards for food safety and enables the FDA to
take action against unsafe or misbranded products

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 Food Safety
1. Principles of Food Safety
Food safety principles are vital for preventing foodborne illnesses:
Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points (HACCP):
 Overview: A preventive system for ensuring food safety by identifying and
controlling potential hazards.
Seven Principles:
1. Conduct Hazard Analysis: Identify potential hazards that could affect
food safety.
2. Determine Critical Control Points (CCPs): Points in the process
where hazards can be controlled or eliminated.
3. Establish Critical Limits: Set maximum or minimum values (e.g.,
temperature, time) for each CCP.
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 4. Monitor CCPs: Regularly check that critical limits are met.
5. Establish Corrective Actions: Define steps to take when monitoring
indicates a deviation from critical limits.
6. Verification: Ensure the HACCP system is working effectively through
audits and testing.
7. Record Keeping: Maintain detailed records of procedures, monitoring,
and corrective actions.
Good Manufacturing Practices (GMP):
 Overview: Guidelines to ensure products are consistently produced
and controlled.
 Key Elements: Focus on hygiene, equipment maintenance, employee
training, and proper storage conditions.
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 Quality Control
1. Quality Control Measures
Quality control (QC) involves various measures to ensure food products meet
established standards:
Sensory Evaluation:
 Overview: Assessing attributes like taste, smell, texture, and
appearance.
 Methods: Conducting taste tests and consumer panels to gather
feedback on quality.
Microbiological Testing:
 Purpose: Regular testing for pathogens and spoilage organisms to
ensure safety.
 Techniques: Using culture methods, rapid testing kits, or molecular
37 techniques (e.g., PCR) to detect contaminants
 2. Quality Assurance Systems
Quality assurance (QA) focuses on establishing a systematic approach to
ensure product quality:
ISO 22000:
 Overview: An international standard for food safety management

systems.
 Key Elements: Incorporates HACCP principles with a focus on

communication and continuous improvement.

Total Quality Management (TQM):
 Overview: A management philosophy aimed at long-term success

through customer satisfaction.

 Key Practices: Involves all employees in continuous quality

improvement efforts and emphasizes customer feedback.

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 3. Traceability
Traceability systems are essential for tracking food products throughout the
supply chain:
Batch Numbering:
 Purpose: Assigns unique identifiers to batches for easy tracking.
 Implementation: Allows for quick identification and recall of products
if safety issues arise.
Record Keeping:
 Importance: Detailed records of sourcing, production, and distribution
help ensure accountability.
 Benefits: Facilitates compliance with regulations and enhances
consumer trust.

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Thanks you!!!