UNIT 2

LANGUAGE AND HUMANS

Language, Culture, and Society

Features of Human Language by Hockett
(1967)

CHARLES HOCKETT (1967) HAS

CREATED A CHECKLIST FOR LANGUAGE.
IT IS LIKE A SET OF INGREDIENTS THAT
MAKES UP ALL HUMAN LANGUAGE.
THESE ARE THE DESIGN FEATURES
INCORPORATING THE AMAZING
SIMILARITIES THAT LANGUAGES ALL
OVER THE WORLD DISPLAY TOGETHER.
 1. Vocal-auditory channel
Human language occurs as a vocal type of
communication, which is perceived by
hearing.
2. Broadcast transmission and
directional reception
This means that just like when a person stands in
the middle of a room, he can be heard by
everyone, assuming that he is speaking loudly
3. Rapid fading (transitoriness) 4.
Speech waveforms Interchangeabili
fade rapidly which is
This means that the
ty
speaker can receive
why the human
language signal does and send the same

not persist over language signal.

 5. Total Feedback
Unlike traffic signs, which cannot
monitor its function, we can hear
ourselves while we speak.

6. Specialization
Humans have lips, tongue, throat, etc,
and each organ has its own specific
function in speech.
 7. Semanticity 8.
Arbitrariness
Human language is
This means that for
arbitrary, meaning, there is
every signal there is a
no necessary connection to
corresponding
the form and the thing
meaning.
 9.
There isDiscretenes
no gradual continuous shading
from one sound to another in the
s
linguistics system, although there may be
a continuum in the real physical world.
10.
Sometimes Displacement
we speak about things in the past or
future, and our language allows us to do so. We
can even talk about distant things, like the
planets and things which do not exist, like Jack
 12.
Traditional
Transm
Humiss
an ion
language is
13. Duality of
not
11. Patterning
Human languages something
Pro duc tiv ity inborn. The discrete parts
allow speaker to
of a language can
create novel, never-
be recombined in
before-heard
a systematic way
utterances that
to create new
others can
forms.
erstand.
HALLIDAY’S FUNCTION OF
LANGUAGE
Halliday suggested that, as a child learns its first

language, it simultaneously learns about the

world around them. Halliday viewed language as

a cultural code that teaches us how to be part of

society, rather than simply a method of

communication. Thus, Halliday’s functions of

language were born.

 1. The The instrumental function of language refers to when
Instrumenta language is used to fulfil a need, such as requiring
l Function food, drink, or comfort.

of Language

2. The
When a speaker commands, persuades or
regulatory
requests something from someone else, this is
known as a regulatory language function. function of
Regulatory language controls the listener’s language
behavior (the speaker adopts a commanding
tone).
3. The
This example of Halliday’s function is how we
Interactive form relationships with others as it encompasses
function of the communicative use of language. It is how we
language relay our thoughts and emotions, strengthening
bonds with those around us.
 This function defines how we refer to ourselves and 4. Personal
express our personal opinions, our identity, and our
functions of
feelings. A child may communicate their opinions and
emotions in a simplistic way. language

5. This term refers to language associated with discovery

Heuristic and explanation, usually in the form of questions or a
function of running commentary (when the child talks about what
language they are doing as they are doing it.

6.
When children tell stories and create imaginary friends
or concepts in their heads, it is an imaginative way of Imaginative
using language. Imaginative language usually occurs in function of
leisure or play scenarios. language
7.
Representation
It describes the exchange of information between
al/ informative
two or more people.
function of
 Non-Human Communicatio

• Is the way anything non-human

communicates without the use of

words.

• Animals communicate through a

NON-HUMAN
COMMUNICATION/ variety of signs, such as sounds or

ANIMAL COMMUNICATION movements.

 1. Reflex 4. Productivity
i v i ty

Properties of
Animal 5. Cultural
2. Displacement
Transmission
Language

3. Arbitrariness 6. Duality of
Patterning
 Transmission in Animal
Language

Types of Signals
1. Visual
Communicatio 4. Chemical
3. Tactile Communication
n
• Badges 2. Auditory
Communicatio (Pheromones)
• Displays Communicatio
n
n
 Animal Consciousness
eness within non-human. It is the
The quality of self awar
ability of an animal to be aware of their existence,
environment, survival, and self. It can be identified
Self-awareness
throu gh these traits: Critical thinking Language Capacity

Common Forms of Animal

Communication
Pheromones Visual Signals Tactile Signals
Chemical signal Involves signals Limited in range than
used to trigger a that can be seen the other types of
response in (gestures, facial signals, as two
another expressions, organisms must be
individual of the body postures, right next to each
same species and coloration) other in order to touch
Experiments on Languages and
Animals

Which involved training a female

chimpanzee named Lana to use a
computer-based language system.
Lana was introduced to a lexigram,
a keyboard with symbols, and she
quickly learned to distinguish and

1. The Lana Project communicate using different terms

and symbols. She could request
food or ask for items through the
Experiments on Languages and
Animals

Focused on teaching chimpanzees

American Sign Language (ASL) for
communication. Researchers at the
University of Nevada in Reno
concluded that chimpanzees lacked
the physical ability to form spoken
language, so they taught Washoe
2. Washoe Project ASL instead. Through repetition and
reward, Washoe learned ASL signs
and was able to communicate with
Experiments on Languages and
Animals

Involved a gorilla named Koko,

who was taught both sign
language and vocal sounds.
Koko’s training began in 1972
when she was just a year old.
Within two weeks, she was

3. The Koko Project already using signs to

communicate her needs for food
and water. Over the course of
four years, Koko learned a total
Experiments on Languages and
Animals

Kanzi, a bonobo, doesn’t use sign

language; he uses different
combinations of lexigrams, or
symbols, to communicate. In the
early 1980s, psychologist Sue
Savage-Rumbaugh, then of Georgia
State University, was trying to teach

4. KANZI Kanzi’s mom, Matata, to use the

lexigrams; instead, Kanzi was the
one who mastered the symbols.
Kanzi understands spoken English
Experiments on Languages and
Animals

Viki, a chimpanzee, was raised by Keith and

Catherine Hayes at the Yerkes Laboratories of
Primate Biology. Over six years, Viki learned to
say four words: “mama,” “papa,” “cup,” and
“up.” However, her vocal expression was hoarse
and challenging for her to produce. Viki’s
training involved manipulating her mouth and

5. VIKI lips, rewarding her for approximations of desired

sounds. She could say “mama” and “papa” on
command, but struggled with speaking. The
words “cup” and “up” were easier for her to
Experiments on Languages and
Animals

The experiment with the chimpanzee

named Gua was influenced by previous
studies. Gua lived with the Kelloggs for
nine months and made four natural
sounds. The Kelloggs tried to teach Gua
the word “pa-pa,” but she did not imitate
the sounds. The Kelloggs believed that if a
chimpanzee were to articulate human
6. GUA sounds, it would require similar training to
Gua’s. Interestingly, during this time, the
Kelloggs were also trying to teach their
Pre p a re d b y
U N IT 2
ARA Ñ A, ED M A RK
ARA LA R , N O R M IE LY N L A N G UA G E
AR EL LA N O , M A R IA LY N
AND
AR PO N , M IRA SO L M .
B AB U LA , ALTH EA HUMANS
BO LO , DAN A
YZ A BE LL E
C AB AL LE RA , KE VI N