Evaporation

• Terminology
– Evaporation – process by which liquid
water passes directly to the vapor phase
– Transpiration - process by which liquid
water passes from liquid to vapor through
plant metabolism
– Sublimation - process by which water
passes directly from the solid phase to the
vapor phase
Factors Influencing Evaporation
– Solar radiation / Temperature Rn Net radiation
– Wind
– Atmospheric Pressure
– Soluble salts u Air Flow
– Heat storage in water bodies
E Evaporation
 Estimation of evaporation
1. Evaporimeters

2. Empirical equations

3. Analytical methods
1-Evaporation measurement by
eavporimeters
• Evaporimeters
– Class A Evaporation Pan
– ISI Standard Pan
– Colorado Sunken Pan
– US Geological Survey Pan
 1-Evaporation from a Pan
Sensible
Net radiationVapor flow rate
heat to air
Hs Rn

• National Weather Service Class A type

• Installed on a wooden platform in a h
grassy location
• Filled with water to within 2.5 inches of Area, A
the top
• Evaporation rate is measured by
manual readings or with an analog G
output evaporation gauge Heat conducted
to ground
 Evaporation from a Pan
• Modified Class A Pan / ISI Standard Pan
– 1220 mm dia
– 225 mm depth
– Made of copper sheet
– Covered with hexagonal wire netting of GI
– Evaporation 14% less in comparison to unscreened pan
– Placed on wooden platform
• Colorado Sunken Pan
– 920 mm square
– 460 mm deep
– Buried in ground
– Radiation and aerodynamic characteristics are similar to
lake
– Difficult to detect leak
– Expensive to install
 Evaporation from a Pan
• US Geological floating Pan
– Square pan
– 900 mm side
– 450 mm depth
– Float in a water body
– Water level in the pan is same as of water body
– Covered with hexagonal wire netting of GI
– High installation cost
– Difficult to perform measurements
 Lake Evaporation
• Lake evaporation = Cp*Pan evaporation
– Cp = Pan coefficient
• Drawbacks of this method
– Difference in heat storage capacity
– Difference in wind action
– Difference in heat transfer characteristics
 2-Empirical evaporation
equations
• Based on Dalton Type equation
– EL = Kf(u)(ew-ea)
• EL = lake evaporation (mm/day)
• ew= Saturated vapor pressure at water surface
temperature
• ea= actual vapor pressure of over-laying air
• F(u)= wind speed correction factor
• K = coefficient
Empirical evaporation equations
• Based on Dalton Type equation
• Mayer’s Formula (1915)
– EL = KM(ew-ea)(1+u9/16)
• EL = lake evaporation (mm/day)
• ew= Saturated vapor pressure at water surface
temperature
• ea= actual vapor pressure of over-laying air
• u9= monthly mean wind velocity in km/h at about 9m
above ground
• K = coefficient (0.36 for deep water and 0.5 for shallow
water)
Empirical evaporation equations
• Based on Dalton Type equation
• Rohwer’s Formula (1931)
• It considers a correction for the effect of pressure
also
– EL = 0.771(1.465-0.000732pa)(0.44+0.0733uo)(ew-ea)
• EL = lake evaporation (mm/day)
• ew= Saturated vapor pressure at water surface temperature
• ea= actual vapor pressure of over-laying air
• uo= mean wind velocity in km/h at about 0.6 m above
ground
• Pa = mean barometric reading in mm of Hg
3-Analytical Methods of Estimating
Evaporation
• Water-budget Method
• Energy-balance Method
• Mass-transfer Method
 Analytical Methods of Estimating
Evaporation
• Water-budget Method
– Based on hydrological continuity equation
– P+Vis+Vig = Vos+Vog+EL+TL+ ∆S
– EL= P+(Vis-Vos)+(Vig –Vog)-TL-∆S
– Simple but least reliable
 Analytical Methods of Estimating
Evaporation
• Energy-balance Method
• Based on law of conservation of energy
• Energy available for evaporation depends
on:
– Incoming energy
– Outgoing energy
– Stored energy
• Mass-transfer Method
 Energy-balance Method
• Hn = Ha + He + Hg + Hs + Hi (Cal/sq.mm/day)
– Hn = net energy received by water
– Hb = back radiation from water
– Ha = sensible heat transfer from water surface to air
– He = Heat energy used up in evaporation (ρLEL)
– Hg = heat flux in the ground
– Hs = heat stored in water body
– Hi = net heat conducted out by water flow
 Methods to reduce evaporation
• Reduction of surface area

• Mechanical cover

• Chemical film
– Cetyl alcohol
Wind as a Factor in Evaporation
• Wind has a major effect on evaporation, E
– Wind removes vapor-laden air by convection
– This Keeps boundary layer thin
– Maintains a high rate of water transfer from
liquid to vapor phase
– Wind is also turbulent
• Convective diffusion is several orders of magnitude
larger than molecular diffusion
 Evapotranspiration
• Evapotranspiration
– Combination of evaporation from soil surface and
transpiration from vegetation
– Governing factors
• Energy supply and vapor transport
• Supply of moisture at evaporative surfaces
– Reference crop
• 8-15 cm of healthy growing green grass with abundant water
– Combo Method works well if B is calibrated to local
conditions
 Potential Evapotranspiration
• Multiply reference crop ET by a Crop Coefficient and a
Soil Coefficient ET k s k c ETr

ET Actual ET CORN
1
ETr Reference Crop ET 0.9

k c Crop Coefficient; 0.8

0.7
Crop Coefficient, kc

0.2 k c 1.3 0.6

k s Soil Coefficient; 0.5

0.4
0 k s 1 0.3

0.2

0.1

0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
Time Since Planting (Days)

http://www.ext.colostate.edu/pubs/crops/04707.html
 Measurement / estimation of
Evapotranspiration
• Lysimeters
• Field Plots
• Penman’s equation
 After this, there are additional
slides (will not be included in
exams)

http://www.ext.colostate.edu/pubs/crops/04707.html
 Aerodynamic Method
• Include transport of vapor Rn Net radiation

away from water surface

as function of:
– Humidity gradient above Air Flow
surface E Evaporation
– Wind speed across surface
• Upward vapor flux
dqv qv1  qv2
m   a K w  a K w
dz z2  z1
• Upward momentum flux 
K w qv1  qv2 
m 
du u2  u1 K m u 2  u1 
  a K m  a K m
dz z2  z1
 Aerodynamic Method
Rn Net radiation

K w qv1  qv2 
m 
K m u 2  u1 
Air Flow
• Log-velocity profile
E Evaporation
Z
u 1  Z 
 ln 
u * k  Z o 
u
• Momentum flux
2
 k u 2  u1 
  a 
 lnZ 2 Z1   
K w k 2  a qv1  qv2 u 2  u1 
m 
K m lnZ 2 Z1 2
Thornthwaite-Holzman Equation
 Aerodynamic Method
 
K w k 2  a qv1  qv2 u 2  u1 
Rn Net radiation
m 
K m lnZ 2 Z1 2

Air Flow
qv and u
E Evaporation
• Often only available at 1
elevation
• Simplifying
0.622k 2  a eas  ea u 2 Ea  Beas  ea 
m 
Pln Z 2 Z o 2
0.622k 2  a u 2
m   w AE ea vapor pressure @ Z 2 B
P w ln Z 2 Z o 2
 Combined Method
• Evaporation is calculated by
– Aerodynamic method Rn
E  Er 
• Energy supply is not limiting lv  w
– Energy method
E Ea Beas  ea 
• Vapor transport is not limiting
• Normally, both are limiting, so use a combination
method
 
E Er  Ea
    Priestly & Taylor


C p Kh p E 1.3 Er
des 4098es  
  
dT (237.3  T ) 2 0.622lv K w
 Example
• Use Combo Method to find Evaporation
– Elev = 2 m,
lv 2.501x10 6  2370T
– Press = 101.3 kPa,
– Wind speed = 3 m/s, (2500  2.36 * 25) x10 3 2441 kJ/kg
– Net Radiation = 200 W/m2,
– Air Temp = 25 degC, Rn 200
Er   3
7.10 mm/day
– Rel. Humidity = 40%, lv  w 2441x10 * 997
 Example (Cont.)
• Use Combo Method to find Evaporation
– Elev = 2 m,
– Press = 101.3 kPa, eas 3167 Pa
– Wind speed = 3 m/s,
– Net Radiation = 200 W/m2, ea  Rh * eas 0.4 * 3167 1267 Pa
– Air Temp = 25 degC,
– Rel. Humidity = 40%,

0.622k 2  a u 2 0.622 * 0.4 2 *1.19 * 3  11

B   4. 54 x10 m/Pa s
P w lnZ 2 Z o 2

101.3 * 997 ln 2 3 x10  4
2

Ea 4.54 x10  11 3167  1267* (1000 mm / 1 m) * (86400 s / 1 day)
7.45 mm/day
 Example (Cont.)
• Use Combo Method to find Evaporation
– Elev = 2 m,
C p Kh p 1005 *101.3 x103
  67.1 Pa/degC
– Press = 101.3 kPa, 0.622lv K w 0.622 * 2441x103
– Wind speed = 3 m/s,
4098 * 3167
– Net Radiation = 200 W/m2,   188.7 Pa/degC
2
– Air Temp = 25 degC, (237.3  25)
– Rel. Humidity = 40%,

 
0.738 0.262
   

 
E Er  Ea 0.738 * 7.10  0.262 * 7.45 7.2 mm/day
   
 Example
• Use Priestly-Taylor Method to find
Evaporation rate for a water body
– Net Radiation = 200 W/m2, 
E 1.3 Er Priestly & Taylor
– Air Temp = 25 degC,  


Er 7.10 mm/day 0.738
 

E 1.3 * 0.738 * 7.10 6.80 mm/day

 Resources on the web
• Evaporation maps from NWS climate
prediction center
– http://www.cpc.ncep.noaa.gov/soilmst/e.shtml
• Climate maps from NCDC
– http://www.nndc.noaa.gov/cgi-bin/climaps/climaps.pl
• Evapotranspiration variability in the US
– http://geochange.er.usgs.gov/sw/changes/natural/et/
ning to the liquid as there are escaping. At this point the vapor is said to be saturated, and th

Saturated Vapor Pressure

The process of evaporation in a closed container will proceed until there are
as many molecules returning to the liquid as there are escaping. At this point
the vapor is said to be saturated, and the pressure of that vapor (usually
expressed in mmHg) is called the saturated vapor pressure.

Since the molecular kinetic energy is greater at higher temperature, more

molecules can escape the surface and the saturated vapor pressure is
correspondingly higher. If the liquid is open to the air, then the vapor
pressure is seen as a partial pressure along with the other constituents of the
air. The temperature at which the vapor pressure is equal to the atmospheric
pressure is called the boiling point.

http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/kinetic/
vappre.htmlPressure
ning to the liquid as there are escaping. At this point the vapor is said to be saturated, and th
Evaporation vs boiling
Ordinary evaporation is a surface phenomenon - some molecules have enough
kinetic energy to escape. If the container is closed, an equilibrium is reached where
an equal number of molecules return to the surface. The pressure of this equilibrium
is called the saturation vapor pressure.

In order to evaporate, a mass of water must collect the large heat of vaporization, so
evaporation is a potent cooling mechanism. Evaporation heat loss is a major climatic
factor and is crucial in the cooling of the human body.