Discrete Mathematics and Its Applications by Rosen

Chapter 1: The Foundations:

Logic and Proofs

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1.1 Propositional Logic
Introduction
A proposition is a declarative sentence
(a sentence that declares a fact) that is
either true or false, but not both.
Are the following sentences propositions?
Toronto is the capital of Canada. (Yes)
Read this carefully. (No)
1+2=3 (Yes)
x+1=2 (No)
What time is it? (No)

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1.1 Propositional Logic
Propositional Logic – the area of logic that
deals with propositions
Propositional Variables – variables that
represent propositions: p, q, r, s
E.g. Proposition p – “Today is Friday.”
Truth values – T, F

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1.1 Propositional Logic
DEFINITION 1
Let p be a proposition. The negation of p, denoted by ¬p, is the statement
“It is not the case that p.”
The proposition ¬p is read “not p.” The truth value of the negation of p, ¬p
is the opposite of the truth value of p.

 Examples
 Find the negation of the proposition “Today is Friday.” and
express this in simple English.
Solution: The negation is “It is not the case that today is Friday.”
In simple English, “Today is not Friday.” or “It is not
Friday today.”
 Find the negation of the proposition “At least 10 inches of rain
fell today in Miami.” and express this in simple English.
Solution: The negation is “It is not the case that at least 10 inches
of rain fell today in Miami.”
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In simple English, “Less than 10 inches of rain fell today
in Miami.”
1.1 Propositional Logic
 Note: Always assume fixed times, fixed places, and particular people
unless otherwise noted.
 Truth table:
The Truth Table for the
Negation of a Proposition.
p ¬p
T F
F T

 Logical operators are used to form new propositions from two or more
existing propositions. The logical operators are also called
connectives.

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1.1 Propositional Logic
DEFINITION 2
Let p and q be propositions. The conjunction of p and q, denoted by p
Λ q, is the proposition “p and q”. The conjunction p Λ q is true when
both p and q are true and is false otherwise.

 Examples
 Find the conjunction of the propositions p and q where p is the
proposition “Today is Friday.” and q is the proposition “It is
raining today.”, and the truth value of the conjunction.
Solution: The conjunction is the proposition “Today is Friday and it
is raining today.” The proposition is true on rainy Fridays.

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1.1 Propositional Logic
DEFINITION 3
Let p and q be propositions. The disjunction of p and q, denoted by p ν
q, is the proposition “p or q”. The disjunction p ν q is false when both p
and q are false and is true otherwise.

 Note:
inclusive or : The disjunction is true when at least one of the two
propositions is true.
 E.g. “Students who have taken calculus or computer science can take
this class.” – those who take one or both classes.
exclusive or : The disjunction is true only when one of the
proposition is true.
 E.g. “Students who have taken calculus or computer science, but not
both, can take this class.” – only those who take one of them.
 Definition 3 uses inclusive or.
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1.1 Propositional Logic
DEFINITION 4
Let p and q be propositions. The exclusive or of p and q, denoted by p  q,
is the proposition that is true when exactly one of p and q is true and is
false otherwise. 

The Truth Table for The Truth Table for The Truth Table for the
the Conjunction of the Disjunction of Exclusive Or (XOR) of
Two Propositions. Two Propositions. Two Propositions.
p q pΛq p q pνq p q p q
T T T T T T T T F
T F F T F T T F T
F T F F T T F T T
F F F F F F F F F
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1.1 Propositional Logic
Conditional Statements
DEFINITION 5
Let p and q be propositions. The conditional statement p → q, is the
proposition “if p, then q.” The conditional statement is false when p is
true and q is false, and true otherwise. In the conditional
 statement p
→ q, p is called the hypothesis (or antecedent or premise) and q is
called the conclusion (or consequence).
 A conditional statement is also called an implication.
 Example: “If I am elected, then I will lower taxes.” p→q
implication:
elected, lower taxes. T T |T
not elected, lower taxes. F T |T
not elected, not lower taxes. F F |T
elected, not lower taxes. T F |F

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1.1 Propositional Logic
 Example:
 Let p be the statement “Maria learns discrete mathematics.” and
q the statement “Maria will find a good job.” Express the
statement p → q as a statement in English.
Solution: Any of the following -
“If Maria learns discrete mathematics, then she will find a
good job.
“Maria will find a good job when she learns discrete
mathematics.”
“For Maria to get a good job, it is sufficient for her to
learn discrete mathematics.”
“Maria will find a good job unless she does not learn
discrete mathematics.”
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1.1 Propositional Logic
 Other conditional statements:
 Converse of p → q : q → p
 Contrapositive of p → q : ¬ q → ¬ p
 Inverse of p → q : ¬ p → ¬ q

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1.1 Propositional Logic
 Example:
 What are the Contrapositive, the converse and the inverse of the
conditional statement “The home team wins whenever it is
raining ”.
Solution: We can express it in the following way -
“If it is raining, then the home team wins.”
Consequently, the contrapositive of this conditional statement is
“If the home team does not win, then it is not raining”
The Converse is
“If the home team wins, then it is raining”.
The inverse is
“If it is not raining, then the home team does not win”
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1.1 Propositional Logic
DEFINITION 6
Let p and q be propositions. The biconditional statement p ↔ q is the
proposition “p if and only if q.” The biconditional statement p ↔ q is
true when p and q have the same truth values, and is false otherwise.
Biconditional statements are also called bi-implications.

 p ↔ q has the same truth value as (p → q) Λ (q → p)

 “if and only if” can be expressed by “iff”
 Example:
 Let p be the statement “You can take the flight” and let q be the
statement “You buy a ticket.” Then p ↔ q is the statement
“You can take the flight if and only if you buy a ticket.”
Implication:
If you buy a ticket you can take the flight.
If you don’t buy a ticket you cannot take the flight. 13
1.1 Propositional Logic

The Truth Table for the

Biconditional p ↔ q.
p q p↔ q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F T

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1.1 Propositional Logic
Truth Tables of Compound Propositions
 We can use connectives to build up complicated compound
propositions involving any number of propositional variables, then
use truth tables to determine the truth value of these compound
propositions.
 Example: Construct the truth table of the compound proposition

(p ν ¬q) → (p Λ q).

The Truth Table of (p ν ¬q) → (p Λ q).

p q ¬q p ν ¬q pΛq (p ν ¬q) → (p Λ q)

T T F T T T
T F T T F F
F T F F F T
F F T T F F 15
1.1 Propositional Logic
Precedence of Logical Operators
 We can use parentheses to specify the order in which logical
operators in a compound proposition are to be applied.
 To reduce the number of parentheses, the precedence order is
defined for logical operators.

Precedence of Logical Operators. E.g. ¬p Λ q = (¬p ) Λ q

Operator Precedence p Λ q ν r = (p Λ q ) ν r
¬ 1 p ν q Λ r = p ν (q Λ r)
Λ 2
ν 3
→ 4
↔ 5
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1.1 Propositional Logic
Translating English Sentences
 English (and every other human language) is often ambiguous.
Translating sentences into compound statements removes the
ambiguity.
 Example: How can this English sentence be translated into a logical
expression?
“You cannot ride the roller coaster if you are under 4 feet
tall unless you are older than 16 years old.”
Solution: Let q, r, and s represent “You can ride the roller coaster,”
“You are under 4 feet tall,” and “You are older than
16 years old.” The sentence can be translated into:
(r Λ ¬ s) → ¬q.

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1.1 Propositional Logic
 Example: How can this English sentence be translated into a logical
expression?
“You can access the Internet from campus if you are a
computer science major or you are not a freshman.”
Solution: Let a, c, and f represent “You can access the Internet from
campus,” “You are a computer science major,” and “You are
a freshman.” The sentence can be translated into:
(c ν ¬f) → a .

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1.1 Propositional Logic
Logic and Bit Operations
 Computers represent information using bits.
 A bit is a symbol with two possible values, 0 and 1.
 By convention, 1 represents T (true) and 0 represents F (false).
 A variable is called a Boolean variable if its value is either true or
false.
 Bit operation – replace true by 1 and false by 0 in logical
operations.
Table for the Bit Operators OR, AND, and XOR.
x y xνy xΛy x  y
0 0 0 0 0
0 1 1 0 1
1 0 1 0 1
1 1 1 1 0 19
1.1 Propositional Logic
DEFINITION 7
A bit string is a sequence of zero or more bits. The length of this string
is the number of bits in the string.
 Example: Find the bitwise OR, bitwise AND, and bitwise XOR of the
bit string 01 1011 0110 and 11 0001 1101.
Solution:
01 1011 0110
11 0001 1101
-------------------
11 1011 1111 bitwise OR
01 0001 0100 bitwise AND
10 1010 1011 bitwise XOR

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1.2 Propositional Equivalences
Introduction
DEFINITION 1
A compound proposition that is always true, no matter what the truth
values of the propositions that occurs in it, is called a tautology. A
compound proposition that is always false is called a contradiction. A
compound proposition that is neither a tautology or a contradiction is
called a contingency.

Examples of a Tautology and a Contradiction.

p ¬p p ν ¬p p Λ ¬p

T F T F
F T T F

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1.2 Propositional Equivalences
De Morgan’s Law


¬(p Λ q ) ≡ ¬p ν ¬q

¬(p ν q ) ≡ ¬p Λ ¬q

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1.2 Propositional Equivalences
Logical Equivalences
DEFINITION 2
The compound propositions p and q are called logically equivalent if p ↔
q is a tautology. The notation p ≡ q denotes that p and q are logically
equivalent.

 Compound propositions that have the same truth values in all

possible cases are called logically equivalent.
 Example: Show that ¬p ν q and p → q are logically equivalent.

Truth Tables for ¬p ν q and p → q .

p q ¬p ¬p ν q p→q
T T F T T
T F F F F
F T T T T
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F F T T T
1.2 Propositional Equivalences
Logical Equivalences
 Example: Show that ¬(p ν q) and ¬ p Λ ¬ q are logically equivalent.

Truth Tables for ¬p ν q and p → q .

p q pνq ¬(p ν q) ¬p ¬q ¬pΛ¬q
T T T F F F F
T F T F F T F
F T T F T F F
F F F T T T T

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1.2 Propositional Equivalences
 In general, 2n rows are required if a compound proposition involves n
propositional variables in order to get the combination of all truth
values.
 See page 24, 25 for more logical equivalences.

 Example: Show that p ν (q Λ r ) and (p ν q) Λ (p ν r) are logically

equivalent.
 Show that (p Λ q) → (p ν q) is a tautology.

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 Logic Gates

• Determine the output for the combinatorial circuit in Figure 2.

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27
 Exercises

Page 13-16 (43,37,12)

Page 24 (40,41,42,43)

Page 35,36 (9,10,15, 16-28,30-33)

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Section Summary
 Tautologies, Contradictions, and Contingencies.
 Logical Equivalence
Important Logical Equivalences
Showing Logical Equivalence
 Normal Forms (optional, covered in exercises in
text)
Disjunctive Normal Form
Conjunctive Normal Form
 Propositional Satisfiability
Tautologies, Contradictions, and
Contingencies

 Example: p ∨¬p
 A tautology is a proposition which is always true.

 Example: p ∧¬p
 A contradiction is a proposition which is always false.

 A contingency is a proposition which is neither a

tautology nor a contradiction, such as p

P ¬p p ∨¬p p ∧¬p
T F T F
F T T F
Logically Equivalent

p↔q is a tautology.
 Two compound propositions p and q are logically equivalent if

 We write this as p⇔q or as p≡q where p and q are compound

Two compound propositions p and q are equivalent if and only if

propositions.


This truth table shows that ¬p ∨ q is equivalent to p → q.

the columns in a truth table giving their truth values agree.


p q ¬p ¬p ∨ q p→ q
T T F T T
T F F F F
F T T T T
F F T T T
 De Morgan’s Laws

Augustus De Morgan

1806-1871

This truth table shows that De Morgan’s Second Law holds.

p q ¬p ¬q (p∨q) ¬(p∨q) ¬p∧¬q

T T F F T F F
T F F T T F F
F T T F T F F
F F T T F T T
Key Logical Equivalences

 Identity Laws: ,

 Domination Laws: ,

 Idempotent laws: ,

 Double Negation Law:

 Negation Laws: ,
Key Logical Equivalences (cont)

 Commutative Laws: ,

 Associative Laws:

 Distributive Laws:

 Absorption Laws:
More Logical Equivalences
Equivalence Proofs
Example: Show that

is logically equivalent to
Solution:
Equivalence Proofs
Example: Show that
is a tautology.
Solution:
Disjunctive Normal Form
 A propositional formula is in disjunctive normal form if it
consists of a disjunction of (1, … ,n) disjuncts where
each disjunct consists of a conjunction of (1, …, m)
atomic formulas or the negation of an atomic formula.
 Yes

 No
 Disjunctive Normal Form is important for the circuit
design methods discussed in Chapter 12.
Disjunctive Normal Form

Example: Find the Disjunctive Normal

(p∨q)→¬r
Form (DNF) of

Solution: This proposition is true when r is

(¬ p∧ ¬ q) ∨ ¬r
false or when both p and q are false.
Conjunctive Normal Form
 A compound proposition is in Conjunctive Normal
Form (CNF) if it is a conjunction of disjunctions.
 Every proposition can be put in an equivalent CNF.
 Conjunctive Normal Form (CNF) can be obtained by
eliminating implications, moving negation inwards and
using the distributive and associative laws.
 Important in resolution theorem proving used in
artificial Intelligence (AI).
 A compound proposition can be put in conjunctive
normal form through repeated application of the logical
equivalences covered earlier.
CNF, DNF Conversion
CNF
(A ∨ B) ∧ (A ∨ ¬B) ∧ (A ∨ C)
A ∧ (A ∨ ¬B)
DNF
(A ∧ B) ∨ (A ∧ ¬B) ∨ (A ∧ C)
A ∨ B ∨ C

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Rules to convert PL to CNF/DNF
Remove Bi-condition using rule
 p ↔ q ≡ (p → q) ∧ (q → p)
Remove implication using rule
 p → q ≡ ¬p ∨ q
Move negation inwards

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Rules to convert PL to CNF/DNF
Apply Distributive law

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Convert to CNF
Example: Put the following into CNF:

Solution:
1. Eliminate implication signs:

2. Move negation inwards; eliminate double negation:

3. Convert to CNF using associative/distributive laws

Convert to CNF

A ↔ (B ∨C)
(A →(B ∨C)) ∧ ((B ∨C) → A)
(¬A ∨ (B ∨C)) ∧ (¬(B ∨C) ∨ A)
(¬A ∨ (B ∨C)) ∧ ((¬B ∧ ¬C) ∨ A)
(¬A ∨ B ∨C) ∧ ((¬B ∨ A) ∧ (¬C ∨ A))
(¬A ∨ B ∨C) ∧ (¬B ∨ A) ∧ (¬C ∨ A)

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Convert to DNF
¬(A ∨ ¬B) ∧ (S → T)
¬(A ∨ ¬B) ∧ (¬S ∨ T)
(¬A ∧ B) ∧ (¬S ∨ T)
(¬A ∧ B ∧ ¬S) ∨ (¬A ∧ B ∧ T)

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Propositional Satisfiability
A compound proposition is satisfiable if
there is an assignment of truth values to
its variables that make it true. When no
such assignments exist, the compound
proposition is unsatisfiable.
A compound proposition is unsatisfiable if
and only if its negation is a tautology.