Chapter 7

Non-metallic Materials

@KIoT
 7.1 Introduction
 Minerals have a definite chemical composition.
 Rocks do not have a definite chemical composition.
 Minerals qualify as chemical compounds; rocks are mixtures of
minerals.
 Examples of minerals are diamond which is pure carbon, lime
stone which is calcium carbonate and quarts which is silica.
 The word “stone‟ is generally interpreted as including both rocks
and minerals.
7.2 Stone used for construction
 The use of stone for masonry is generally restricted to decorative
constructional details.
 It also carries part of the load and durable as other parts of the
building.
 There are four stones commonly used for masonry construction:
granite, lime stone, marble and sand stone.
 If they are of reasonably good quality, all four are stronger than the
 Granite is the most durable of all stones because it is relatively non-
porous, inert to industrial and other atmospheres, hard and wear
resistant.
─ However it contains three mineral ingredients: quartz, mica and
feldspar.
─ Since these ingredients have different coefficients of expansion, rapid
heating or cooling causes granites to spall.
─ Its fire resistance is therefore not good.

 Limestone and marble are minerals having the formula Ca.CO3.

─ They may contain small amounts of impurities which result in
variations in appearance and properties.
─ Marble differs from lime stone in that it has developed greater
crystallinity than lime stone as a result of action of pressure and
temperature in the earth’s crust.
─ It is less porous, more durable and harder than limestone and takes
high polish.
 Lime stone is essential to the manufacture of Portland cement.
─ Limestone and also dolomite {Ca. Mg. (CO3)2} are important
metallurgical fluxes.
─ When limestone is reacted with coke, it forms calcium carbide
from which acetylene can be made.
 Sandstone consists of a conglomeration of sand particles held
together by natural mineral cement such as limestone or hydrated
silica.
─ Durability of sand stone is not good because of porosity and in
addition, because of chemical reactivity.
─ Basalt is a stone containing the same mineral constituents as
granite, though in different proportions.
─ It is shaped with difficulty and is not commonly used for masonry.
─ Basalt is usually crushed and in this form is widely used for road
construction and railroad ballast.
7.3 Ceramics Materials
Ceramics Materials
 Ceramics are compounds
between metallic and
nonmetallic elements; they
are most frequently oxides,
nitrides, and carbides.

 With regard to mechanical Common objects that are made of

behavior, ceramic materials ceramic materials: scissors, a
are relatively stiff and strong. china tea cup, a building brick, a
In addition, ceramics are floor tile, and a glass vase.
typically very hard, extremely
brittle (lack ductility), and
are highly susceptible to
fracture
 Most ceramic materials fall into an application-
classification scheme that includes the following
groups:
─ Clay products
─ Refractories
─ Glasses
─ Abrasives
─ Cements and
─ advanced ceramics; the newly developed
7.3.1 Clay Products
 The principal ingredients of clay are alumina (Al2O3), silica (SiO2)
and water.
 Clay is often considered to be a hydrated silicate of alumina.
 The proportions of water, silica and alumina vary quite a wide range.
 If only these ingredients are present, products made from the clay are
white after firing.
 Impurities such as iron oxide and manganese oxide tend to impart
colors to clay products.
 Building brick is a clay product which is supplied in various grades.
 The grading is based on differences in compressive strength, water
absorption and freezing and thawing resistance.
 As the firing temperature increases, strength increases, porosity
decreases and the brick becomes darker.
 Bricks are classified as face brick or common brick.
 Face brick is darker, more dense and stronger than common brick
because of the higher burning temperatures to which it is subjected.
 Since face brick does not absorb as much water as common brick, it
is more resistant to frost damage and is therefore used to face
buildings.
 Among other clay products those which are more interested to
engineers are building tiles, sewerage and drainage pipes,
chemically resistant porcelain and fired porcelain enamel.

7.3.2 Refractories
 Materials which withstand the effects of high temperature are
known as refractories.
 Some refractories are clay products ; others are not.
 Fire clay brick contains rather pure kaolinite (essentially
Al2O3.2SiO2.2H2O) as the principal ingredient, with a minimum of
glass forming substances.
 It is made from preferred and preshrunk clay in order to obtain a
product which is dimensionally stable.
 Fireclay brick’s strength is low, but it is not intended to carry
structural loads.
 Its primary functions is to confine flames and hot atmospheres
and to protect structural members from excessive temperatures.
 High alumina is similar to fireclay brick but contains 50% of
alumina.
 Increasing the alumina content raises the softening temperature
and resistance to slag attack.

a. Acid refractories:
 Silica is the primary ingredient of acid refractories.
 Since silica brick is acidic, it does not react with other acidic
substances and is used in furnaces where acid slags are
encountered.
 Quartz or ganister is used as the source of silica which is
mixed with about 2% lime in water suspension.
 After forming to brick or other refractory shape, the product is fired,
during which time reaction occurs between lime (basic) and silica
(acidic) to form the glass bond which cements silica particles
together.
 Silica bricks tend to undergo slight permanent expansion on
prolonged exposure to high temperatures.
 Silica brick’s tendency to expand is useful in producing a good fit in
furnace arches.
 They are used as the lining material for acid open hearth and acid
Bessemer converters.

b. Basic refractories:
 They have magnesia (Mg.O) as their primary ingredient.
 Magnesia is obtained by calcining (heating to the point of
decomposition) magnesite (Mg.CO3).
 Temperatures of 16050C are necessary to obtain a stable product.
Magnesia is also obtained from seawater.
After burning, the magnesia is ground and mixed with ferric oxide,
 It is then pressed to shape and fire.
 Front ,back and walls of basic open hearth furnaces are lined with
magnesia brick .
 Basic open hearth bottom are rammed with magnetite or dolomite
(Mg.CO3.CaCO3).
 Basic linings and bottoms of open hearth furnaces assist in
removal of acidic impurities and resist reaction with basic slag
compositions.
c. Neutral refractories
 Sometimes these contain Cr2O3 as the basic ingredient.
 Smaller amounts of silica, ferric oxide and magnesia form a bond
in fired neutral refractory products.
 Chrome refractories are also chemically bonded.
 High alumina contents are sometimes considered to be neutral
refractories.
 Silicon carbides, made by fusing silica and coke in an electric
furnace and graphite are also considered neutral refractories with
resistance to slag action.
7.3.3 Glass
 The most distinguishing feature of glass is its transparency and
accordingly, its most important use is for windows and optical devices.
 It is also useful as a corrosion resistant material since it is not
attacked by organic substances, salts or acids, with the exception of
hydrofluoric acid.
 Glass is usually considered resistant to alkaline substances, although it
is slowly attacked by them.
 Glass is hard and wear resistant but lacks ductility.
 Compared to metallic substances, glass has poor resistance to thermal
shock and has good electric resistivity.
 Its conductivity improves at high temperatures where the opposite is
true for metals which prevents use of glass as a high temperature
resistor.
 Electrically conducting glass has been developed which is useful for a
few special applications such as self-defrosting and antifogging
windshields.
 Conductivity results from tin oxide or similar transparent coating.
a. Lime soda glass
 The predominant ingredient in most glass is silica, SiO2
which is usually obtained from high quality sand.
 Pure silica produces a high quality glass but its high
melting point, workability and tendency to retain trapped
air bubbles limits its use.
 Pure silica has a low coefficient of expansion and the best
resistance to thermal shock and chemical attack of all
glasses.
 The addition of increasing amounts of Na 2O to SiO2 lowers
the melting and softening temperatures of the latter.
 However resistance to chemical attack is also impaired
and if enough Na2O is used, glass becomes water soluble
and is known by the familiar name “water glass‟.
 By introducing lime Ca.O in addition to Na 2O, resistance
to water, chemicals and abrasion is improved.
 Excess lime causes the glass to crystallize on cooling and
loses its transparency.
 The percentage composition of a typical common glass
might be as follows: 71 SiO2, 15Na2O, 9Ca.O, 3Mg.O,
1Al2O3.
 Common glass is used for window panes, light bulbs and
bottles
b. Borosilicate glass
 In borosilicate glass boric anhydride (B2O3) is used in place
of lime.
 A typical percentage composition might be: 81 SiO2, 12B2O3,
5Na2O2, Al2O3..
 Pyrex is an example of such glasses, known for their low
coefficient of expansion.
 This glass is used in cooking utensils and chemical equipment
where resistance to thermal shock is important.
 Although glass has poor thermal conductivity, it transmits
about 90 % of the radiant heat striking it and is therefore
used for cooking ware.
c. Leaded glasses
 They contain as much as 92% lead oxide.
 They are used for special purposes such as protection
against gamma radiation in electron tubes because of
high surface resistance and in optical instruments and
decorative glass objects because of a high index of
refraction.
 These glasses are sometimes called “flint glasses”.
d. Phosphate glasses
 It contains P2O5 as a replacement for most or all of the SiO2.
 Phosphate glasses are useful if the transmission of a wide range of
wavelengths is important.
 Phosphate glass transmits about 80% of the entire ultraviolet
spectrum: ordinary window glass transmits almost none of the
short ultraviolet waves and up to about 80 % of the long ultraviolet
waves.
 After fabrication of the particular glass shape, it must be annealed
or slowly cooled to prevent the formation of residual stresses.
 Glass particularly is sometimes strengthened by a heat treatment
known as “tempering”.
 In this operation the glass is heated to just below its softening
temperature and cooled in an air blast.
 This places outer portion of the glass in compression and the inner
portions intension, thus increasing resistance to bending failure.
 Glass, being only about 10% as strong in tension as in
 This normally occurs at the surface.
 Tempering loses its effectiveness unless the glass has a
sufficiently large coefficient of thermal expansion.
 Glass filaments are sometimes spun into thread which is
then woven into cloth.
 The cloth is useful as a non-combustible textile and
reinforcing material for laminated plastics.
 Unwoven filaments are used to make insulating bats and air
filters.
 They are also used for reinforcement of sheet plastic objects
such as molded chairs.
7.3.4. Abrasive ceramics
 Abrasive ceramics are used to wear, grind, or cut away
other material, which necessarily is softer.
 Therefore, the prime requisite for this group of materials is
hardness or wear resistance; in addition, a high degree of
toughness is essential to ensure that the abrasive particles
do not easily fracture.
 Furthermore, high temperatures may be produced from
abrasive frictional forces, so some refractoriness is also
desirable.
 Diamonds, both natural and synthetic, are utilized as
abrasives; however, they are relatively expensive.
 The more common ceramic abrasives include silicon
carbide, tungsten carbide (WC), aluminum oxide (or
corundum), and silica sand.
7.3.5 Cements
 Several familiar ceramic materials are classified as inorganic
cements: cement, plaster of paris, and lime, which, as a
group, are produced in extremely large quantities.
 The characteristic feature of these materials is that when
mixed with water, they form a paste that subsequently sets
and hardens.
 This trait is especially useful in that solid and rigid structures
having just about any shape may be expeditiously formed.
 Also, some of these materials act as a bonding phase that
chemically binds particulate aggregates into a single cohesive
structure. Under these circumstances, the role of the cement is
similar to that of the glassy bonding phase that forms when
clay products and some refractory bricks are fired. One
important difference, however, is that the cementitious bond
develops at room temperature.
7.3.6 Advanced Ceramics
 Many of our modern technologies utilize and will continue
to utilize advanced ceramics because of their unique
mechanical, chemical, electrical, magnetic, and optical
properties and property combinations.
7.4 Asbestos and rock wool
 Several naturally occurring minerals are given the name asbestos.
 All are fibrous mineral substances.
 The most desirable varieties are those having long fine fibers of
high strength.
 The outstanding properties of asbestos are its poor thermal and
electrical conductivity, inertness to chemical attack and non-
combustibility.
 These properties led to its use in woven form for such
applications as protective clothing and fireproof theatre curtains.
 It is compressed with Portland cement to make asbestos shingles.
 The fibers are mixed with water and formed into plain and
corrugated paper.
 It is also mixed with water and applied to pipes as lagging.
 Brake linings and other friction devices are made from asbestos.

 Rock wool is a synthetic fibrous material formed by melting a

controlled rock composition and blowing high pressure steam at
a stream of the molten material.
 Rock wool is used in bat or roll form as insulating material.
 Some slags produced as by-products of metal refining also have
compositions suitable for making insulation wool
7.5 Plastics
 They are organic substances which are generally more resistant to
environments which attack common engineering materials such
as steel, wool, and rubber.
 Most plastics are rather inert to the atmosphere and to salt, fresh
or soil water.
 Fairly good resistance is usually offered by plastics to attack by
inorganic acids, bases and salts.
 Usually thermosetting plastics have good resistance to organic
chemicals.
 On the other hand thermoplastics are more generally attacked or
dissolved by common organic solvents.
 The polyamides (nylon) are important thermoplastics which resist
organic solvents.
 Tetra-fluoro-ethylene (Teflon) is outstanding because of excellent
resistance to almost all chemicals, both organic and inorganic in
dilute or concentrated solutions.
7.6 Rubber
 Rubber is unique among engineering materials because of
its toughness, wear and abrasion resistance, flexibility and
low permeability.
 These properties to a large extent explain its use in
pneumatic tyres and tyre accessories.
 The most important property of rubber subjected to
compressive loads is modulus of elasticity.
 For soft rubber the modulus varies between about 10
Kgf/cm2 and 100Kgf/cm2, the lower figure being for the
softest stocks. Hard rubber has a modulus of elasticity of
about 10000 Kgf /cm2.
 From below curves it can be seen that the resistance of the
rubber to deformation at first increases ( as in the case of
metals ) and then decreases.
Stress-strain curve for rubber loaded in tension
 The plots represent the stress-strain data after repeated cycles of
stressing.
 The initial modulus of elasticity being greater than after a number of
load-unload cycles have been applied.
 If the data are plotted on expanded co-ordinates, the curves follow
essentially a straight line relationship up to about 100 psi.
 The modulus of elasticity is calculated from the slope of the curves
up to this point.
 The modulus in tension, calculated as described, varies from about
150 psi for the softest soft rubber to about 1300 psi for somewhat
stiffer soft stock. For hard rubber the modulus is about 150000psi.
 These figures are the same as the figures for compressive loading.
 The modulus of elasticity is dependent upon:-
─ The temperature of the rubber,
─ The time rubber has been at temperature,
─ The degree of strain and
─ The compounding and curing of the rubber.
 The elastic resilience of rubber refers to its ability to absorb
energy elastically.
 Elastic resilience is indicated by the area under the stress–strain
curve up to the elastic limit.
 The good elastic resilience of rubber accounts for its use as a
medium for absorbing shock loads.
 As compared to other common structural materials, rubber has by
far the greatest capacity to absorb energy elastically.
 For instance, a high strength tempered steel having yield strength
of 150000 psi can absorb elastically about 750 inch-lb per cubic
inch.
 Thus rubber has about three times the elastic resilience of high
strength steel.
 Drift is somewhat similar to the term “creep‟ as applied to metals.
 It involves a permanent distortion of the material under long-time
load.
 Like metals, the rate of drift tends to increase with increasing
temperatures.
 Vibrating loads produce more drift than static loads and the more
sever the vibrations the greater the effect.
 Drift is expressed in percentage, according to the formula,
%D=(Z-z)x100 /Z
where:-
I. z is the deflection after an initial interval of loading , 1 minute;
II. Z is the deflection at the end of a time interval t for which D
holds.
 Obviously changing the value of the initial interval of loading will affect the
computed value of D.
 A typical drift curve for soft rubber in compression is shown in the
following figure.
 This plot also shows the effect of vibration and temperature on drift.
 Curves for drift of rubber (durometer reading of 40) at three different
temperatures. Initial time interval: 1 minute.
 The effect of vibrations on the curve for 1000F is indicated by the broke line.
Figure: Drift of soft rubber

Time under load, days

Hysterisis or internal friction in rubber means the conversion of
mechanical energy to thermal energy when rubber is loaded and
unloaded.
 The softer the rubber the less effective it is in absorbing
mechanical energy by conversion to thermal energy.
 Conversion of mechanical into thermal energy is also less effective
at high temperatures, the logarithmic decrement decreasing with
rising temperature.
 Hysterisis is also evident from a stress-strain plot showing a
complete load-unload cycle as shown in below.
 The area under the loading curve indicates the mechanical energy
input.
 The area under the unloading curve represents mechanical energy
recovered upon removal of the load.
 The difference between the two areas is the area enclosed by the
load-unload curves.
 This area represents mechanical energy converted to heat.
The large the area, the larger the value of K ( i.e logarithmic
decrement ) for the particular material and conditions of test.
The above figure shows mechanical hysterisis – A load-unload cycle
for rubber.
The shaded area represents mechanical energy converted to heat.
Hence rubber has a high value of mechanical hysteric’s, making it
useful as a vibration absorber.
 Failure of rubber under long–time static load is known as static
fatigue failure.
 Failure as a result of repeated loads is known as dynamic fatigue
failure.
7.6.4 Physical properties
 Important physical property of rubber is its low permeability to
fluids.
 Low permeability to water is important in waterproofing
applications.
 The electrical properties are also of importance, particularly where
rubber is used for insulation.
 The specific resistance of rubber is adversely affected by
temperature.
 Rubber having a low specific electric resistance is also available.
 Electrically conductive rubber is used for unaesthetic hoses on
which static charges can not be tolerated because of explosion
hazards.
 Some aircraft de-icing equipment is also made of rubber which can
conduct electricity.
 The specific gravity of rubber is near 1.9,although the actual figure
varies somewhat depending upon the compression.
7.6.5 Chemical properties
 They include oxidation and resistance to sunlight, resistance to
petroleum products and organic chemicals and resistance to acids
and alkalis.
 Generally speaking the synthetics are superior to natural rubber
with respect to oxidation, sunlight and organic chemicals.
7.6.6 Tests
 Among the more important tests for rubber are compression
deflection and compression set tests.
 Tension tests and permanent set measurements under tensile
loads are also common.
 The most useful indentation test is the duro-meter hardness test.
 It has the advantage of being simple and fast.
 The instrument consists of a carefully made, calibrated, spring
loaded indenter.
 To use the instrument, it is forced downward on to the surface of
a flat specimen of rubber.
 The specimen should be at least 0.25 inch thick and have an area
greater than the bearing plate of the instrument.
 When pressure is exerted to make contact between the bearing
and specimen surfaces, the indenter is pushed inward against spring
pressure by an amount related to the hardness of the rubber.
 The movement of the indenter is indicated by a needle and a dial,
the higher numbers indicating greater hardness.
 For instance, duro-meter readings from:-
 30 to 50 are referred to as “soft live rubber‟,
 60 to 80 as “stiff live rubber‟,
 85 to 95 as “hard live rubber‟ and
 over 98 as “hard inflexible rubber.‟
7.6.7 Ingredients
 There is some similarity between the ingredients of plastic
objects and the ingredients of rubber objects.
 Rubber itself corresponds to the binder or resin; fillers, pigments
and additions to improve workability are found in rubber objects as
well as plastics.
 Rubber is different from most plastics in that loss of plasticity
occurs as a result of chemical reaction between rubber and various
curing agents, rather than as a result of heat or cooling as in the
case of the thermosetting or thermoplastic resins.
 Rubber is sometimes considered to be a chemical–setting
substance.
7.6.8 Vulcanizing
 The most important ingredient in a rubber compound is the vulcanizer,
usually sulphur.
 Vulcanization is assisted by the presence of accelerators and activators.
 Vulcanization improves elasticity, chemical resistance ,tear resistance
and abrasion resistance.
S.No Raw rubber Vulcanized rubber

1 Highly heat sensitive, plastic when hot, Less heat sensitive

brittle when cold
2 Soluble in benzene and many organic Swells but does not dissolve
solvents

3 Tends to be plastic with less elasticity Tends to be more elastic and

less plastic
4 Poor wear ,abrasion and tear Good abrasion, wear and tear
resistance resistance

EFFECT OF VULCANIZATION ON PROPERTIES OF RUBBER

 Fillers among which carbon black is the most important, improve
mechanical and service properties.
 Pigments some times perform a dual function as both fillers and
coloring agents.
 Antioxidants retard deterioration caused by oxidation.
 Still other ingredients are added to improve the plasticity or
workability of rubber prior to its vulcanization.
7.7 Wood
 From an engineering standpoint, the most useful portion of a tree is
wood.
 Wood consists primarily of long hollow cells whose axes run parallel
to the length of the tree and secondarily of cells which radiate from
the central axis of the tree.
 The cells are cemented together by a natural resin called “lignin”.
 The cell walls shrink when the water they contain leaves them,
accompanied by an improvement in mechanical properties.
 Seasoning achieves this and also produces greater dimensional
stability.
 Hardwood and softwood are the two principal varieties of wood.
 The hardwoods coming from trees having broad flat leaves.
 Hardwood refers to the central portion of a tree; sapwood refers to
the active living portion of a tree within three inches of the bark.
 The common defects of lumber include knots, warp, checks, shakes,
pitch pockets and cross-grain.
 These impair properties or appearance or both.
 Wood gives best service when loaded as a beam of column.
 The tensile strength of wood is high but tensile loads are difficult to
apply without involving shear failure at the end connections.
 In compression, the properties of the strongest species of wood
approach those of concrete.
 Wood is quite weak intension and compression grain.
 Wood fails at much lower stresses under loads acting for long times
than under short –time loads.
 It is also subjected to fatigue type failures.
 If exposed to temperatures near the boiling point of water (100 0C) for
prolonged periods, it is likely to deteriorate.
 Wood is subject to attack by fungi, insects and marine life.
 Fungus attack can be best prevented by keeping the wood dry or by
impregnation with antiseptics.
 Subterranean (underground) termite attack is a serious form of
deterioration, best prevented by proper design and construction.
 If termite damage is found, it can be controlled by proper use of soil
poisons.
 Dry wood termites can be controlled by poisonous dusts blown into
wood entered by insects.
 Marine borer attack is difficult to prevent.
 Wood can be made more fire resistant by impregnation with certain
chemicals.
 Important products obtained from wood are lumber, resin and
cellulose.
 Cellulose, an extremely important wood product used for plastics and
paper is made by shredding wood mechanically or dissolving the
natural resins which hold the wood fibers together.
 The manufacture of paper is basically involves a reassemble of
cellulose fibers in an interlocking mass to form a continuous sheet.
 Plywood is an important wood product made by cementing layers of
wood veneer together.
 Plywood has better mechanical properties and dimensional stability
than natural wood.
 Important tests of wood include:
a. static and impact bending ,
b. compression along the grain and
c. determination of moisture content.
 There are also tests for compression and tension across the
grain, shear and tension parallel to the grain and hardness.
 Wood testing is directed at obtaining basic information on
the properties of the different species from which
recommended working stresses can be calculated.
Qns?